18.02.2024

Modern chemical technologies. New materials in chemistry and the possibilities of their application

, petrochemical industry, energy, transport, military equipment and many others.

Chemical technologies in historical development

When considering the development of chemical technology in the 20th century, especially after the First World War, it is possible to reveal some of its characteristic, specific features. It is known that 99.5% of the earth's crust consists of 14 chemical elements: oxygen, silicon, carbon, aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium, magnesium, potassium, hydrogen, titanium, phosphorus, chlorine and sulfur. However, despite the widespread distribution of many of these elements, they were not drawn into the orbit of the chemical industry in the 19th century. This applies equally to fluorine, titanium, chlorine, magnesium, aluminum and hydrogen.

For chemical technology of the 20th century. It is typical to refer specifically to these most common elements. Hydrogen is currently the bread of modern chemistry. Ammonia synthesis, alcohol synthesis, liquid fuel synthesis, etc. require the production of billions of cubic meters of hydrogen annually. The widespread involvement of hydrogen in chemical production is a characteristic feature of 20th-century chemistry.

The chemistry of silicon and, in particular, the chemistry of organosilicon compounds is acquiring great importance in modern technology. The chemistry of titanium, chlorine, magnesium, potassium, and aluminum is also acquiring exceptional importance. At the same time, chemical technology, especially in connection with the development of atomic and reactive technology, strives to use the rarest and most dispersed elements of the earth’s crust, which are the most important basis for technology of the 20th century.

The basis of organic synthesis in the 19th century. was coal tar obtained by coking coal. In the 20th century, these raw materials give way to simple and easily accessible gases obtained from a wide range of solid fuels, ranging from peat, low-grade brown coals and ending with anthracite and coke. Gases obtained during oil production and refining are used on a large scale. Throughout the 20th century. Natural fossil gases are increasingly being used (Figure 1).

Fig1. Products obtained from natural gas (methane).

Thus, if in the 19th century. The basis of the chemical industry was coal tar, then in the first half of the 20th century. The main raw material base for the organic synthesis industry is coal and oil and the gases obtained from them: hydrogen, carbon monoxide, a wide range of hydrocarbons and a number of other materials. Nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, chlorine, fluorine, carbon monoxide, methane, acetylene, ethylene and some other gases are the main raw materials base of modern chemistry. Consequently, a characteristic feature of the latest chemical technology is the use of common elements, previously used on an insignificant scale, and their transformation into the basis of modern chemical technology, as well as the widespread use of solid fuels, liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons as chemical raw materials.

A characteristic feature of chemical technology is also the use of rare elements, associated, in particular, with the requirements of nuclear technology. Chemistry significantly contributes to the development of nuclear technology, providing it with various materials - metals (uranium, lithium, etc.), heavy water, hydrogen, plastics, etc.

First, the production of basic equipment for ammonia synthesis was mastered. Synthesis columns, separators, water and ammonia scrubbers for purifying gases from carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide, as well as centrifuges, vacuum filters, autoclaves for rubber vulcanization, plastic presses, deep cooling equipment, etc. were developed and created. Of particular importance Since the 20s, they have acquired powerful oil gas separation plants, highly efficient rectification and adsorption equipment, high-pressure compressors and reactors, refrigeration units, etc. The main trend of modern chemistry is the desire to pre-design the molecular structure of a substance according to oxygen, chlorine, fluorine, oxide carbon, methane, acetylene, ethylene and some other gases are the main raw material base of modern chemistry.

Consequently, a characteristic feature of the latest chemical technology is the use of common elements, previously used on an insignificant scale, and their transformation into the basis of modern chemical technology, as well as the widespread use of solid fuels, liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons as chemical raw materials.

It should be noted that one of the features of modern chemistry is the requirement for the purity of the products produced. Impurities contained in starting substances often negatively affect the properties of the resulting product. Therefore, recently in the chemical industry very pure starting substances (monomers) containing at least 99.8-99.9% of the main substance are increasingly used. A characteristic feature of modern chemical technology is that it is equipped with new methods of influence; Particularly important are the use of high pressures from several hundred to 1500-2000 or more atmospheres, deep vacuum (up to thousandths of an atmosphere), high temperatures up to several thousand degrees, the use of deep cold (low temperatures close to absolute zero), as well as the use of electric discharges , ultrasound, radioactive radiation, etc. Naturally, the increase in the technical level of chemical production in general, and therefore the rapid development of the organic synthesis industry in particular, is ensured by the supply of the chemical industry with modern, high-performance equipment, appropriate apparatus and machines. First, the production of basic equipment for ammonia synthesis was mastered. Synthesis columns, separators, water and ammonia scrubbers for purifying gases from carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide, as well as centrifuges, vacuum filters, autoclaves for rubber vulcanization, plastic presses, deep cooling equipment, etc. were developed and created. Of particular importance Since the 20s, they have acquired powerful oil gas separation units, highly efficient rectification and adsorption equipment, high-pressure compressors and reactors, refrigeration units, etc. The main trend of modern chemistry is the desire to pre-design the molecular structure of a substance in accordance with predetermined properties. The synthesis of substances with predetermined properties in modern chemistry is not carried out blindly, but on the basis of an in-depth study of the laws of molecular formation. Therefore, a number of new branches of chemical science are receiving great development.

Essentially, from random searches and finds, chemistry, starting from the 1920s, moved to the systematic replacement and displacement of natural scarce materials with materials that are not only not inferior in quality, but, on the contrary, superior to these natural materials. For example, Chilean natural saltpeter was replaced by synthetic nitrogen compounds. Synthetic rubber is not inferior in quality to natural rubber. In recent years, some researchers have been working to improve the quality of natural rubber rather than synthetic rubber so that it can compete with some specialty synthetic rubbers. Great strides have been made in the synthesis of artificial fiber, the production of which dates back some decades.

Since the 1920s, natural products have been pushed aside and are being replaced by synthetic products of equal quality. This is a completely natural process. The fact is that chemical methods of processing substances, the introduction of chemical processes into production lead to a significant reduction in production time and to a significant reduction in labor costs, and at the same time to the production of products of higher quality than natural products. So, if it takes 70 man-days to produce 1 ton of artificial viscose staple fiber, then 238 man-days are spent to produce 1 ton of cotton fiber. In the production of viscose silk, labor costs are approximately 10 times less than in the production of natural silk. When producing 1 ton of ethyl alcohol (necessary for the production of a number of synthetic products) from petroleum raw materials, labor costs in comparison with the production of this alcohol from food raw materials are reduced by 20-22 times. The following data shows how much has been done in the field of synthesis of new substances . Currently, 100 thousand inorganic chemical compounds are known in nature, while the number of known organic substances, natural and artificial, has exceeded three million and continues to grow rapidly. Only industrially developed compounds obtained from oil number 10 thousand items. Along with the creation of new synthetic materials, there is a continuous process of improving the quality of existing industrially produced substances. Finally, the fundamental possibility of artificially obtaining natural compounds of any complexity has now been proven. The time is not far off when various types of complex protein substances, which are the basis of life, will be synthesized in the laboratories of organic chemists.

A characteristic feature of modern technology is that it develops on the basis of the widespread use of electricity. Moreover, if previously the steam engine only to some extent provided technological “raw materials” for the chemical industry in the form of steam and heat, then electricity becomes the most important element of a kind of technological “raw material” for, for example, processes such as electrolysis.

To produce ammonia, synthesized from hydrogen and air nitrogen obtained by electrolysis of water, approximately 12 thousand kWh of electricity must be consumed. For the production of synthetic rubber based on ethylene, about 15 thousand kWh is consumed, and for some other types of rubber - 17 thousand kWh and even more. The production of one ton of acetate silk requires 20 thousand kWh, tons of phosphorus - from 14 to 20 thousand kWh and tons of artificial abrasives - about 6-9 thousand kWh - this is approximately the same as for production powerful tractor.

The development of the chemical industry is characterized by the widest automation of technological processes. Complex automation is primarily necessary in the chemical industry, which is characterized by large-scale production. Automation of the chemical industry is facilitated by the predominance of continuous production processes, as well as harmful and even dangerous work. In the chemical industry, first of all, the processes of regulating temperature, pressure, composition, reaction rate, etc. are fully automated, since for continuous chemical processes (inaccessible for direct observation) it is especially important to maintain the stability of technological regimes. In chemical production, complete mechanization and automation have generally been carried out, and only the functions of supervision and control, as well as performing preventive repairs, remain with humans.

The most important areas of automation of chemical production are the introduction of new automatic devices based on the use of electronic mathematical machines, the transition to comprehensive mechanization and automation of entire chemical plants. In the United States, production automation has received the greatest development in the oil and chemical industries. Along with the automation of the control of individual installations and individual technological processes, fully automated enterprises are being commissioned, such as, for example, an oil refinery, equipped with an electronic process control system, which was put into operation in 1949, and then the Spencer Chemical ammonia plant, which is distinguished by its high degree of automation of production processes. The rapid development of chemistry led to the fact that only within 10-15 years after the end of the Second World War, hundreds of new materials were created, replacing metal, wood, wool, silk, glass and much more.

The production of synthetic materials required to ensure technical progress in various sectors of the national economy is being developed at an accelerated pace. This is characterized by an increase in the production of mineral fertilizers, as well as pesticides and ammonia, an increase in the use of oil and natural gases, coke oven gas and coal coking products for the production of synthetic resins, rubber, alcohol, detergents, high-quality varnishes and dyes, plastics, artificial fiber, electrical insulating materials, special materials for mechanical engineering, radio engineering, etc.

In particular, new effective synthesis methods are being introduced to avoid the consumption of huge quantities of food products in the production of technical products. For example, the consumption of huge amounts of grain for the production of ethyl alcohol to obtain synthetic rubber has raised the problem of replacing food products with synthetic alcohol. To obtain 1 ton of ethyl alcohol instead of 4 tons of grain or 10 tons of potatoes, it is enough to consume 2 tons of liquefied natural gas. To produce 1 ton of synthetic rubber instead of almost 9 tons of grain or 22 tons of potatoes, it is enough to spend only about 5 tons of liquefied gases from oil refineries.

Many economists believe that in the next decade more than 50% of the world's chemical production will be derived from petroleum feedstocks. All this speaks of great achievements in organic synthesis.

After the October Revolution of 1917, the development of socialist production required expanding the scope of practical applications of chemistry, increasing the role of special chemical and chemical-technological education, and raising the level of training of both researchers and teachers, and chemical engineers. In the early 1920s. Independent chemistry departments are being organized within the physics and mathematics departments of universities. These departments have introduced specializations in inorganic, physical, organic, analytical chemistry, biochemistry and agrochemistry. In 1920, the Moscow Chemical-Technological Institute named after. D. I. Mendeleev. Since 1929, on the basis of chemical departments at universities, independent chemical faculties have been opened to train specialists for research institutions and chemical production laboratories, and new chemical-technological institutes have been created.

Since the mid-1950s. in chemistry and chemical technology, the finest methods for studying various substances are created, new materials are produced - chemical fibers, plastics, glass-ceramics, semiconductors, new physiologically active substances and drugs, chemical fertilizers and insectofungicides. Chemistry has penetrated into all branches of science and the national economy. Chemical education has therefore become an integral part of the training of specialists in polytechnic, industrial, metallurgical, energy, electrical engineering, machine and instrument engineering, geological, mining, petroleum, agricultural, forestry, medical, veterinary, food, light industry and other higher industries. and secondary specialized educational institutions.

Specialists for scientific and pedagogical activities are trained mainly by chemical faculties of universities and pedagogical institutes, as well as faculties of chemical-biological, biological-chemical, natural sciences, etc.

The training of chemist specialists at Soviet universities lasts 5 years (in evening and correspondence courses - up to 6). Special courses in inorganic, organic, analytical, physical, colloidal chemistry, crystal chemistry, general chemical technology, and chemistry of macromolecular compounds are studied here. More than half of the teaching time in special disciplines is occupied by student work in laboratories. Students undergo practical training (28 weeks) at enterprises, research institutions and laboratories.

The training of specialists in chemistry and chemical technology and teachers for higher educational institutions continues in graduate school. The largest centers for training chemists, besides universities, are the following institutes: Moscow Chemical Technology Institute. D. I. Mendeleev, Leningrad Technological Institute. Lensoveta, Moscow Institute of Fine Chemical Technology named after. M. V. Lomonosov, Belarusian Technological University named after. S. M. Kirova, Voronezh Technological Institute, Dnepropetrovsk Chemical-Technological Institute named after. F. E. Dzerzhinsky, Ivanovo Chemical-Technological Institute, Kazan Chemical-Technological Institute named after. S. M. Kirova, Kazakh Chemical-Technological Institute, etc.

Chemical specialists (technological technicians) are also trained in secondary specialized educational institutions - in chemical and chemical-technological technical schools, located, as a rule, in the centers of the chemical industry, at large chemical plants. In 1977, over 120 such educational institutions trained technicians in over 30 chemical and chemical-technological specialties (chemical technology of oil, gas, coal, glass and glass products, technology of chemical fibers, etc.). Graduates of these educational institutions are used in chemical production as foremen, foremen, laboratory assistants, machine operators, etc. Chemical-technological vocational schools satisfy the need for skilled workers for various branches of the chemical industry.

Improving the structure and content of chemical and chemical-technological education is associated with the scientific and pedagogical activities of many Soviet scientists - A. E. Arbuzov, B. A. Arbuzov, A. N. Bakh, S. I. Volfkovich, N. D. Zelinsky, I. A. Kablukova, V. A. Kargina, I. L. Knunyants, D. P. Konovalov, S. V. Lebedeva, S. S. Nametkina, B. V. Nekrasova, A. N. Nesmeyanova, A. E. Porai-Koshits, A. N. Reformatsky, S. N. Reformatsky, N. N. Semenov, Y. K. Syrkin, V. E. Tishchenko, A. E. Favorsky and others. New achievements of chemical sciences are covered in special chemical journals that help improve the scientific level of chemistry and chemical technology courses in higher education.

In developed countries, the major centers of the structure and content of chemical and chemical-technological education are: Great Britain - Cambridge, Oxford, Bath, Birmingham universities, Manchester Polytechnic Institute; in Italy - Bologna, Milan universities; in the USA - California, Columbia, Michigan Technological Universities, University of Toledo, California, Massachusetts Institutes of Technology; in France - Grenoble 1st, Marseille 1st, Clermont-Ferrand, Compiegne Technological, Lyon 1st, Montpellier 2nd, Paris 6th and 7th universities, Laurent, Toulouse polytechnic institutes; in Hepmania - Dortmund, Hannover, Stuttgart universities, Higher Technical Schools in Darmstadt and Karlsruhe; in Japan - Kyoto, Okayama, Osaka, Tokyo universities, etc.

, M., 1971;

Fundamentals of technology and petrochemical synthesis, ed. A. I. Dintses and L. A. Potolovsky, M., 1960.

1. Introduction3
2. Chemical industry3
3. Chemical technology7
4. Conclusion8

References9

Introduction

The chemical industry is the second leading industry after electronics, which most quickly ensures the introduction of scientific and technological progress into all spheres of the economy and helps accelerate the development of productive forces in each country. A feature of the modern chemical industry is the orientation of the main high-tech industries (pharmaceuticals, polymer materials, reagents and highly pure substances), as well as products of perfumery, cosmetics, household chemicals, etc. to ensure the daily needs of a person and his health.

The development of the chemical industry determined the process of chemicalization of the national economy. It involves the widespread use of industry products, the full introduction of chemical processes in various sectors of the economy. Industries such as oil refining, thermal energy (except nuclear power plants), pulp and paper, ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, production of building materials (cement, brick, etc.), as well as many food industry production are based on the use of -knowledge of chemical processes of changing the structures of the starting substance. At the same time, they often need the products of the chemical industry itself, i.e. thereby stimulating its accelerated development.

Chemical industry

Chemical industry is a branch of industry that includes the production of products from hydrocarbon, mineral and other raw materials through their chemical processing. The gross output of the chemical industry in the world is about 2 trillion. dollars. The volume of industrial production of the chemical and petrochemical industry in Russia in 2004 amounted to 528,156 million rubles.

The chemical industry became a separate industry with the beginning of the industrial revolution. The first factories for the production of sulfuric acid, the most important mineral acid used by humans, were built in 1740 (Great Britain, Richmond), in 1766 (France, Rouen), in 1805 (Russia, Moscow region), in 1810 (Germany, Leipzig). To meet the needs of the developing textile and glass industries, the production of soda ash arose. The first soda factories appeared in 1793 (France, Paris), in 1823 (Great Britain, Liverpool), in 1843 (Germany, Schönebeck an der Elbe), in 1864 (Russia, Barnaul). With the development in the middle of the 19th century. In agriculture, artificial fertilizer factories appeared: in 1842 in Great Britain, in 1867 in Germany, in 1892 in Russia.

Raw materials connections and the early emergence of industry contributed to the emergence of Great Britain as a world leader in chemical production during three quarters of the 19th century. Since the end of the 19th century. With the growing demand of economies for organic substances, Germany is becoming a leader in the chemical industry. Thanks to the rapid process of concentration of production, a high level of scientific and technological development, and an active trade policy, Germany by the beginning of the 20th century. conquers the world market for chemical products. In the United States, the chemical industry began to develop later than in Europe, but by 1913 the United States took and has since held 1st place in the world among states in terms of chemical production. This is facilitated by the richest reserves of minerals, a developed transport network, and a powerful domestic market. Only by the end of the 80s did the chemical industry of the EU countries in general terms exceed production volumes in the United States.

Table 1

Sub-sectors of the chemical industry

Sub-sector
Inorganic chemistry	Ammonia production, Soda production, Sulfuric acid production
Organic chemistry	Acrylonitrile, Phenol, Ethylene Oxide, Urea
Ceramics	Silicate production
Petrochemistry	Benzene, Ethylene, Styrene
Agrochemistry	Fertilizers, Pesticides, Insecticides, Herbicides
Polymers	Polyethylene, Bakelite, Polyester
Elastomers	Rubber, Neoprene, Polyurethanes
Explosives	Nitroglycerin, Ammonium Nitrate, Nitrocellulose
Pharmaceutical chemistry	Medicines: Syntomycin, Taurine, Ranitidine...
Perfumes and cosmetics	Coumarin, Vanillin, Camphor

All the noted specific features of the chemical industry currently have a great influence on the structure of the industry. In the chemical industry, the share of high-value, high-tech products is increasing. The production of many types of mass products, which require large amounts of raw materials, energy, water and are unsafe for the environment, is stabilized or even reduced. However, the processes of structural adjustment are proceeding differently in individual groups of states and regions. This has a noticeable impact on the geography of certain groups of production in the world.

The greatest impact on the development of the world economy and the conditions of everyday life of human society had in the second half of the 20th century. polymer materials, products of their processing.

Industry of polymer materials. It and the production of hydrocarbons initial for synthesis and intermediate products from them account for 30 to 45% of the cost of production of the chemical industry in developed countries of the world. This is the basis of the entire industry, its core, closely connected with almost all chemical production. The raw materials for the production of initial hydrocarbons, intermediates and the polymers themselves are mainly oil, associated and natural gas. Their consumption for the production of this wide range of products is relatively small: only 5-6% of oil produced in the world and 5-6% of natural gas.

Plastics and synthetic resins industry. Synthetic resins are mainly used to produce chemical fibers, and plastics are most often the starting materials for construction. This predetermines their use in many areas of industry, construction, as well as products made from them in everyday life. Many types of plastics, and even more brands, have been created in recent decades. There is a whole class of industrial plastics for the most critical products in mechanical engineering (fluoroplastics, etc.).

The chemical fiber industry revolutionized the entire light industry. In the 30s the role of chemical fibers in the structure of textiles was negligible: 30% of them were wool, about 70% were cotton and other fibers of plant origin. Chemical fibers are increasingly used for technical purposes. The scope of their application in the economy and household consumption is constantly growing.

Synthetic rubber industry. The demand for rubber products in the world (1 billion automobile tires alone are produced annually) is increasingly met by the use of synthetic rubber. It accounts for 2/3 of the total production of natural and synthetic rubbers. The production of the latter has a number of advantages (less costs for the construction of factories than for the creation of plantations; less labor costs for its factory production; lower price compared to natural rubber, etc.). Therefore, it was released in more than 30 countries.

Mineral fertilizer industry. The use of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium fertilizers largely determines the level of agricultural development of countries and regions. Mineral fertilizers are the most popular products of the chemical industry.

The pharmaceutical industry is becoming extremely important for protecting the health of the planet's growing population. The growing demand for its products is due to:

1) rapid aging of the population, primarily in many industrial countries of the world, which requires the introduction of new complex drugs into medical practice;

2) an increase in cardiovascular diseases and cancer, as well as the emergence of new diseases (AIDS), to combat which more and more effective drugs are required;

3) the creation of new generations of drugs due to the adaptation of microorganisms to their old forms.

Rubber industry. The products of this industry are increasingly focused on meeting the needs of the population.

In addition to the many household rubber products (mats, toys, hoses, shoes, balls, etc.) that have become common consumer goods, there is a growing demand for rubber components for many types of mechanical engineering products. This includes means of ground-based trackless transport: tires for cars, bicycles, tractors, aircraft chassis, etc. Rubber products such as piping, gaskets, insulators and others are required for many types of products. This explains the wide range of rubber products (it exceeds 0.5 million items).

Among the most popular products in the industry, the production of tires (tyres) for various types of transport stands out. The production of these products is determined by the number of vehicles manufactured in the world, amounting to many tens of millions of units of each of them. The production of tires consumes 3/4 of natural and synthetic rubber, a significant part of the synthetic fibers used for the production of cord fabric - the tire carcass. In addition, to obtain rubber as a filler, various types of soot are needed - also a product of one of the branches of the chemical industry - soot. All this determines the close relationship between the rubber industry and other chemical industries.

The level of economic development of a country can be judged by the level of development of the chemical industry. It supplies the economy with raw materials and supplies, and makes it possible to apply new technological processes in all sectors of the economy. The intra-industry composition of the chemical industry is very complex:

1) basic chemistry,

2) chemistry of organic synthesis.

Pharmaceuticals, photochemistry, household chemicals, and perfumes belong to fine chemistry and can use both organic and inorganic raw materials. The intersectoral connections of the chemical industry are extensive - there is no sector of the economy with which it is not connected. Scientific complex, electric power industry, metallurgy, fuel industry, light industry - chemistry - textile industry, agriculture, food industry, construction, mechanical engineering, military-industrial complex. The chemical industry can use a variety of raw materials: oil, gas, coal, timber, minerals, even air. Consequently, chemical plants can be located everywhere. The geography of the chemical industry is vast: the production of potash fertilizers gravitates towards areas of raw material extraction, the production of nitrogen fertilizers - towards the consumer, the production of plastics, polymers, fibers, rubber - towards areas of petroleum processing. The chemical industry is one of the leading branches of the scientific and technological revolution; along with mechanical engineering, it is the most dynamic branch of modern industry.

The main features of the placement are similar to those of mechanical engineering; There are 4 main regions in the global chemical industry. The largest of them is Western Europe. The chemical industry began to develop at a particularly rapid pace in many countries of the region after the Second World War, when petrochemicals began to lead in the structure of the industry. As a result, petrochemical and oil refining centers are located in seaports and along the routes of main oil pipelines.

The second most important region is the United States, where the chemical industry is characterized by great diversity. The main factor in the location of enterprises was the raw material factor, which largely contributed to the territorial concentration of chemical production. The third region is East and Southeast Asia, with Japan playing a particularly important role (with powerful petrochemicals based on imported oil). The importance of China and the newly industrialized countries, which specialize mainly in the production of synthetic products and semi-finished products, is also growing.

The fourth region is the CIS countries, which have a diverse chemical industry focused on both raw materials and energy factors.

Chemical technology

Chemical technology is the science of processes and methods for chemical processing of raw materials and intermediate products.

It turns out that all processes associated with the processing and production of substances, despite their external diversity, are divided into several related, similar groups, each of them using similar apparatus. There are 5 such groups in total - chemical, hydromechanical, thermal, mass transfer and mechanical processes.

In any chemical production we encounter all or almost all of the listed processes simultaneously. Let us consider, for example, a technological scheme in which product C is obtained from two initial liquid components A and B according to the reaction: A + B—C.

The starting components pass through a filter in which they are cleaned of solid particles. They are then pumped into the reactor, preheated to the reaction temperature in the heat exchanger. The reaction products, including the component and impurities of unreacted components, are sent for separation to a distillation column. Along the height of the column, multiple exchanges of components occur between the flowing liquid and the vapors rising from the boiler. In this case, the vapors are enriched with components that have a lower boiling point than the product. The pairs of components leaving the top of the column are condensed in a reflux condenser. Part of the condensate is returned to the reactor, and the other part (reflux) is sent to reflux the distillation column. The pure product is removed from the boiler, cooled to normal temperature in the heat exchanger.

Establishing the patterns of each of the groups of chemical technology processes opened a green light for the chemical industry. After all, now the calculation of any, even the newest chemical production is carried out according to well-known methods and it is almost always possible to use commercially produced devices.

The rapid development of chemical technology has become the basis for the chemicalization of the national economy of our country. New branches of chemical production are being created, and most importantly, the processes and apparatus of chemical technology are being widely introduced into other sectors of the national economy and into everyday life. They underlie the production of fertilizers, building materials, gasoline and synthetic fibers. Any modern production, regardless of what it produces - cars, airplanes or children's toys, cannot do without chemical technology.

One of the most interesting problems that can be solved with the help of chemical technology in the near future is the use of the resources of the World Ocean. Ocean water contains almost all the elements necessary for humans. Dissolved in it are 5.5 million tons of gold and 4 billion tons of uranium, huge amounts of iron, manganese, magnesium, tin, lead, silver and other elements, the reserves of which are being depleted on land. But for this it is necessary to create completely new processes and apparatuses of chemical technology.

Conclusion

The chemical industry, like mechanical engineering, is one of the most complex industries in its structure. It clearly distinguishes semi-product industries (basic chemistry, organic chemistry), basic (polymer materials - plastics and synthetic resins, chemical fibers, synthetic rubber, mineral fertilizers), processing (synthetic dyes, varnishes and paints, pharmaceutical, photochemical, reagents, household chemicals, rubber products). The range of its products is about 1 million items, types, types, brands of products.

Chemical technology is the science of the most economical and environmentally sound methods and means for processing raw natural materials into consumer products and intermediate products.

It is divided into the technology of inorganic substances (production of acids, alkalis, soda, silicate materials, mineral fertilizers, salts, etc.) and the technology of organic substances (synthetic rubber, plastics, dyes, alcohols, organic acids, etc.);

References

1. Doronin A. A. New discovery of American chemists. / Kommersant, No. 56, 2004.
1. 2. Kilimnik A. B. Physical chemistry: Textbook. Tambov: Tamb publishing house. state tech. Univ., 2005. 80 p.
2. 3. Kim A.M., Organic chemistry, 2004
  1. 4. Perepelkin K. E. Polymer composites based on chemical fibers, their main types, properties and applications / Technical textiles No. 13, 2006
3. 5. Traven V.F. Organic chemistry: Textbook for universities in 2 volumes. - M.: Akademkniga, 2004. - T.1. - 727 pp., T.2. - 582 s.

Technology in the broad sense of the word is understood as a scientific description of methods and means of production in any industry.

For example, methods and means of processing metals are the subject of metal technology, methods and means of manufacturing machines and apparatus are the subject of mechanical engineering technology.

Mechanical technology processes are based primarily on mechanical action that changes the appearance or physical properties of the processed substances, but does not affect their chemical composition.

Chemical technology processes include chemical processing of raw materials, based on inherently complex chemical and physical-chemical phenomena.

Chemical technology is the science of the most economical and environmentally sound methods of chemical processing of raw natural materials into consumer goods and means of production.

The great Russian scientist Mendeleev defined the differences between chemical and mechanical technology this way: “... starting with imitation, any mechanical-factory business can be improved in even its most basic principles, if there is only attentiveness and desire, but at the same time, without prior knowledge , the progress of chemical plants is unthinkable, does not exist and will probably never exist.”

Modern chemical technology

Modern chemical technology, using the achievements of natural and technical sciences, studies and develops a set of physical and chemical processes, machines and devices, optimal ways to implement these processes and control them in the industrial production of various substances, products, and materials.

The development of science and industry has led to a significant increase in the number of chemical industries. For example, now about 80 thousand different chemical products are produced based on oil alone.

The growth of chemical production, on the one hand, and the development of chemical and technical sciences, on the other, made it possible to develop the theoretical foundations of chemical technological processes.

Technology of refractory non-metallic and silicate materials;

Chemical technology of synthetic biologically active substances, chemical pharmaceuticals and cosmetics;

Chemical technology of organic substances;

Technology and polymer processing;

Basic processes of chemical production and chemical cybernetics;

Chemical technology of natural energy carriers and carbon materials;

Chemical technology of inorganic substances.

Chemical technology and biotechnology includes a set of methods, methods and means of obtaining substances and creating materials using physical, physico-chemical and biological processes.

CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY:

Analysis and forecasts for the development of chemical technology;

New processes in chemical technology;

Technology of inorganic substances and materials;

Nanotechnologies and nanomaterials;

Organic Substances Technology;

Catalytic processes;

Petrochemicals and oil refining;

Technology of polymer and composite materials;

Chemical and metallurgical processes of deep processing of ore, technogenic and secondary raw materials;

Chemistry and technology of rare, trace and radioactive elements;

Reprocessing of spent nuclear fuel, disposal of nuclear energy waste;

Environmental problems. Creation of low-waste and closed technological schemes;

Processes and apparatus of chemical technology;

Technology of medicines, household chemicals;

Monitoring of the natural and man-made sphere;

Chemical processing of solid fuels and natural renewable raw materials;

Economic problems of chemical technology;

Chemical cybernetics, modeling and automation of chemical production;

Toxicity problems, ensuring the safety of chemical production. Labor protection;

Analytical control of chemical production, quality and certification of products;

Chemical technology of high molecular weight compounds

RADIATION CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY (RXT) is a field of general chemical technology devoted to the study of processes occurring under the influence of ionizing radiation (IR) and the development of methods for the safe and cost-effective use of the latter in the national economy, as well as the creation of corresponding devices (apparatuses, installations).

RCT is used to obtain consumer goods and means of production, to give materials and finished products improved or new performance properties, increase the efficiency of agricultural production, solve some environmental problems, etc.

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Topic: New materials in chemistry and the possibilities of their application

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Kuznetsova O.V.

Checked:

Ivankina. O.M.

Volzhsky, 2008

Introduction

1. Polymer materials

2. Synthetic fabrics

3. Preservation and replacement of materials

6. Optical materials

References

Introduction

Materials are substances from which various products are made: products and devices, cars and airplanes, bridges and buildings, spacecraft and microelectronic circuits, charged particle accelerators and nuclear reactors, clothing, shoes, etc. Each type of product requires its own materials with very specific characteristics. High demands have always been placed on the properties of materials.

Modern technologies make it possible to produce a wide variety of high-quality materials, but the problem of creating new materials with better properties remains relevant to this day.

When searching for a new material with desired properties, it is important to establish its composition and structure, as well as to provide conditions for controlling them.

In recent decades, materials have been synthesized with amazing properties, for example, materials for heat shields for spacecraft, high-temperature superconductors, etc. It is hardly possible to list all types of modern materials. Over time, their number is constantly increasing.

Many structural elements of modern aircraft are made of composite polymer materials. One of these materials, Kevlar, is superior to many materials, including the highest quality steel, in an important indicator - the strength/weight ratio.

1. Polymer materials

polymer synthetic fabric

Plastics are materials based on natural or synthetic polymers that are capable of acquiring a given shape when heated under pressure and stably maintaining it after cooling. In addition to polymer, plastics may contain fillers, stabilizers, pigments and other components. Sometimes other names for plastics are used - plastics, plastics.

Polymers are built from macromolecules consisting of numerous small basic molecules - monomers. The process of their formation depends on many factors, variations and combinations of which make it possible to obtain many varieties of polymer products with different properties. The main processes of formation of macromolecules are polymerization and polycondensation.

By changing the structure of molecules and their various combinations, it is possible to synthesize plastics with desired properties. An example is the synthesis of plastics with desired properties. An example is ABS polymer. It consists of three main monomers: acrylonitrate (A), butadiene (B) and styrene (C). The first of them provides chemical resistance, the second - impact resistance and the third - hardness and ease of thermoplastic processing. The main importance of these polymers is to replace metals in various structures.

The most promising materials with high heat resistance turned out to be aromatic and heteroaromatic structures with a strong benzene ring: polyphenylene sulfide, aromatic polyamides, fluoropolymers, etc. These materials can be used at temperatures of 200 - 400 degrees. The main consumers of heat-resistant plastics are aviation and rocket technology.

2. Synthetic fabrics

Since the beginning of the twentieth century. Chemical technologies began to focus on the creation of new fibrous materials. To date, a variety of artificial fibers are made mainly from 4 types of chemical materials: cellulose (viscose), polyamide, polyacrylonitrile and polyesters.

The volume of production of synthetic materials for a clothing manufacturer is determined by consumer demand, which has shown a downward trend in recent years. In this regard, one of the most important tasks of chemists is to bring artificial materials closer to natural ones in properties and quality.

Today's innovations have affected the geometry of fibers. Manufacturers of textile raw materials strive to make the threads as thin as possible.

Hollow fibers also appeared. They withstand the cold better. If such a fiber is not round in cross-section, but oval, then the fabric made from it removes sweat from the skin more easily.

One of the varieties of synthetics is Kevlar. It is 5 times more tensile than steel and is used to make bulletproof jackets. The favorite material of fashion designers - elastic - is convenient not only in sportswear, but also in everyday suits. There is a fabric based on tiny glass beads that reflect light. Clothing made from it is good protection for those who are outside at night.

The technology for making fabric for astronaut clothing is original, which can protect him outside the atmosphere from the freezing cold of space and the scorching heat of the Sun. The secret of such clothing is in millions of microscopic capsules embedded in the fabric or foam - the mass.

Modern fabrics often consist of multiple layers, such as metal foil, yarn and sweat-wicking fibers.

The latest fabrics paved the way for modern clothing manufacturing technology.

3. Replacement of materials

Old materials are being replaced by new ones. This usually happens in 2 cases: when there is a shortage of old material and when new material is more effective. The substitute material must have the best properties. For example, plastics can be classified as substitute materials, although it is hardly possible to consider them definitely new materials. Plastics can replace metal, wood, leather and other materials.

No less difficult is the problem of replacing non-ferrous metals. Many countries are following the path of economical, rational consumption. The advantages of plastics for many applications are quite obvious: one ton of plastics in mechanical engineering saves 5 - 6 tons of metals. In the production of, for example, plastic screws, gears, etc., the number of processing operations is reduced and labor productivity increases by 300-1000%. When processing metals, the material is used by 70%, and in the manufacture of plastic products - by 90-95%.

Timber replacement began in the first half of the 20th century. First of all, plywood appeared, and later - fiberboard and particle board. In recent decades, wood has begun to be replaced by aluminum and plastics. Examples include toys, household items, boats, building structures, etc. At the same time, there is a tendency to increase consumer demand for goods made from wood.

In the future, plastics will be replaced by composite materials, the development of which is given great attention.

4. Heavy-duty and heat-resistant materials

The range of materials for various purposes is constantly expanding. Over the past decade, a natural-scientific basis has been created for the development of fundamentally new materials with specified properties. For example, steel containing 18% nickel, 8% cobalt and 3 - 5% molybdenum is characterized by high strength - the ratio of strength to density for it is several times higher than for some aluminum and titanium alloys. The primary area of its application is aviation and rocket technology.

The search for new high-strength aluminum alloys continues. Their density is relatively small and they are used at relatively low temperatures - up to about 320 degrees. Titanium alloys, which have high corrosion resistance, are suitable for high-temperature conditions.

Further development of powder metallurgy is underway. Pressing metal and other powders is one of the promising ways to increase the strength and improve other properties of pressed materials.

In the last decade, much attention has been paid to the development of composite materials, i.e. materials consisting of components with different properties. Such materials contain a base in which reinforcing elements are distributed: fibers, particles, etc. Composites can include glass, metal, wood, artificial substances, including plastics. A large number of possible combinations of components makes it possible to obtain a variety of composite materials.

By combining poly- and monocrystalline threads with polymer matrices (polyesters, phenolic and epoxy resins), materials are obtained that are not inferior in strength to steel, but are 4-5 times lighter.

The material of the future will be one that is not only super strong, but also resistant to long-term exposure to an aggressive environment.

The creation of heat-resistant materials is one of the most important tasks in the development of modern chemical technologies.

To date, promising methods for producing heat-resistant materials have been developed. These include: implantation of ions on any surface; plasma synthesis; melting and crystallization in the absence of gravity; sputtering onto polycrystalline, amorphous and crystalline surfaces using molecular beams; chemical condensation from the gas phase in a glowing plasma discharge, etc.

Using modern technologies, for example, silicon nitride and tungsten silicide have been obtained - heat-resistant materials for microelectronics. Silicon nitride has excellent electrical insulating properties even with a small layer thickness of less than 0.2 microns. Tungsten silicide has very low electrical resistance. These materials in the form of a thin film are sprayed onto the elements of integrated circuits. Sputtering is carried out by plasma deposition onto a less heat-resistant substrate without noticeable changes in its properties.

Of practical interest is the method of obtaining new ceramic materials for the manufacture, for example, of an all-ceramic cylinder block of an internal combustion engine. This method consists of casting a silicon-containing polymer into a mold of a given configuration, followed by heating, during which the polymer is transformed into a heat-resistant and durable silicon carbide or nitride.

New technologies make it possible to synthesize more heat-resistant materials.

5. Materials with unusual properties

Nitinol is a nickel titanium alloy that has the unusual property of retaining its original shape. Therefore, it is sometimes called a memory metal, or a metal with memory. Nitinol is able to retain its original shape even after cold forming and heat treatment. It is characterized by super- and thermoelasticity, high corrosion and erosion resistance.

At first, nitinol products served as an advantage for military purposes - they were used to connect various pipelines in combat aircraft, access to which was limited.

It was possible to assemble a unique design using nitinol couplings about six years ago in space. Installing a relatively long mast to mount the engine using traditional methods would require astronauts to remain in space for a long time, which could expose them to excessive cosmic radiation. Thread couplings made it possible to quickly and easily assemble the 14-meter mast.

The greatest benefit can come from the use of nitinol couplings not for solving one-time space and narrowly targeted military tasks, but for national economic purposes. These are gas pipelines, oil pipelines, gasoline pipelines, water pipelines. Gas, oil and gasoline pipelines filled with flammable gas, oil and gasoline, respectively, pose an increased fire hazard, and therefore welding cannot be used during repairs, and all restoration work must be carried out using threaded connections and fastening materials. This task is much easier with the use of corrosion-resistant nitinol couplings, which operate when a relatively small current is passed through them, without the need for an open flame.

Nitinol clamps, couplings, and spirals are used in medicine. Nitinol anchors help connect broken bones more effectively. Thanks to its shape memory, the threaded coupling is better fixed in the gum, protecting the joints from overload. Nitinol, having the ability to elastically deform by 8-10%, smoothly absorbs the load, like a living tooth, and as a result causes less injury to the gums. A nitinol spiral can restore the cross-section of a vessel affected by a particular disease in the human body.

Without a doubt, nitinol is a promising material, and many more examples of its successful use will become known in the near future.

Liquid crystals are liquids that, like crystals, have anisotropy of properties associated with the ordered orientation of molecules. Due to the strong dependence of the properties of liquid crystal on external influences, they find various applications in technology (in temperature sensors, indicator devices, light modulators, etc.). Today, in the global display technology market, liquid crystal devices are second only to picture tubes, and in terms of energy efficiency in displays with a relatively small screen area, they have no competitors.

A liquid crystalline substance consists of organic molecules with a predominant ordered orientation in one or two directions. Such a substance has fluidity like a liquid, and the crystalline order of the molecules is confirmed by its optical properties. There are three main types of liquid crystals: nematic, smectic and cholesteric.

One of the promising directions in the chemistry of liquid crystals is the implementation of these structures in the synthesis of polymers. Molecular order, characteristic of nematic liquid crystals. It is this principle that underlies the production of artificial fibers with exceptionally high tensile strength, which can replace materials for the manufacture of aircraft fuselages, body armor, etc.

6. Optical materials

The electrical signal sent along the copper wire is gradually replaced by a much more informative light signal propagating along light-conducting fibers.

Improvements in technology for the production of quartz filaments have made it possible to reduce luminous flux losses by approximately 100 times in less than ten years. New optical materials, such as fluoride glasses, can produce even more transparent fibers. Unlike regular glasses, which are composed of a mixture of metal oxides, fluoride glasses are a mixture of metal fluorides.

Fiber optics opens up extremely great opportunities for transmitting large amounts of information over long distances. Already today many telephone exchanges, television, etc. successfully use fiber-optic communications.

Modern chemical technology has played an important role not only in the development of new optical materials - optical fibers, but also in the creation of materials for optical devices for switching, amplifying and storing optical signals. Optical devices operate on new time scales for processing light signals. Modern optical devices use lithium niobate and gallium aluminum arsenide.

Experimental studies show that organic stereoisomers, liquid crystals and polyacetylenes have better optical properties than lithium niobate and are very promising materials for new optical devices.

7. Materials with electrical properties

In the beginning, such materials were predominantly single crystals of silicon and germanium containing relatively low concentrations of impurities. After some time, the focus of the developers' attention was on helium arsenide single crystals grown on substrates made of single-crystal indium phosphide. Modern technology makes it possible to obtain several layers of gallium arsenide of various thicknesses with different impurity contents. Working units of lasers and laser display devices used in long-wave optical communication lines are made from gallium arsenide materials.

In the process of developing new semiconductor materials, the semiconducting properties of amorphous (non-crystalline) silicon were unexpectedly discovered.

To date, completely new groups of materials with electrical conductivity have been discovered. Their physical properties largely depend on the local structure and molecular bonds. Some of these materials are inorganic, others are organic compounds.

In polymer conductors, large flat molecules serve as elements of a conducting column and form metal macrocycles that are connected to each other through covalently bonded oxygen atoms. This chemically engineered molecule is electrically conductive, which is a real sensation. The metal atoms and surrounding groups in a planar macrocycle can be replaced and modified in various ways. As a result, it is possible to obtain a polymer with specified electrically conductive properties.

The technology for manufacturing polymer conductors has already been mastered, and the number of varieties of such conductors is growing. Under the influence of certain reagents, polyparaphenylene, paraphenylene sulfide, polypyrrole and other polymers acquire electrically conductive properties.

In some solid materials with an ionic mobile structure, the mobility of ions is compared to the mobility of ions in a liquid. Such materials are used in memory devices, displays, sensors, and as electrolytes and electrodes in batteries.

When creating modern microelectronic technology and highly sensitive equipment, a variety of materials with anisotropic electrical, magnetic and optical properties are used. Ionic crystals, organic molecular crystals, semiconductor and many other materials have such properties.

Modern technology makes it possible to obtain a material in the form of glass, but not with dielectric properties, but with metallic conductivity or semiconductor properties. This technology is based on the rapid freezing of a liquid, the condensation of a gas phase on a very cold surface, or the implantation of ions on the surface of a solid.

Thus, with the use of modern technologies, it is possible to obtain new materials with an unusual set of properties.

8. High temperature superconductors

Superconductors are substances that transform into a superconducting state at temperatures below critical.

Many substances have superconducting properties: about half of the metals (for example, a nickel-titanium alloy with a critical temperature of 9.8 K), several hundred alloys and intermetallic compounds.

Superconductivity has been discovered in polymer substances. All this indicates that many minerals have superconducting properties, but their critical temperature remained relatively low for a long time.

At the end of 1986 An important discovery was made: it was discovered that some solid compounds based on copper and oxygen transform into a superconducting state at temperatures above 90K. This phenomenon is called high-temperature superconductivity.

The use of refrigerants, even such as liquid xenon, inevitably leads to more complex structures that include superconducting materials. This is one of the reasons for holding back the widespread adoption of high-temperature superconducting materials.

High-temperature conductivity, discovered over ten years ago, promised a lot of attractive prospects both in the field of fundamental science and in solving purely technical problems. The efforts of the world's leading researchers were aimed at obtaining new materials and studying their structure. Research continues, none of them has yet been able to solve the problem of superconductivity as a whole, but each helps to understand it. Many important and interesting substances have been discovered in the crystal structure.

9. Materials for dissociation of organometallic compounds

The results of recent experimental studies have shown that the thermal dissociation of a number of organometallic compounds produces pure metals of various solid forms with unique properties. These organometallic compounds include:

Carbonyls - W(CO), Mo(CO), Fe(CO), Ni (CO),

Metal acetylacetonates -

Rhodium dicarbonylacetonate -

These compounds are characterized by high volatility in the gaseous state. They decompose when heated to 100-150C. As a result of thermal dissociation, it is possible to obtain a pure metal phase in various condensed forms: highly dispersed powders, metal whiskers, non-porous thin film materials, cellular metallons, metal fibers and paper.

Highly dispersed powders consist of small particles - up to 1 - 3 microns and are used for the production of metal ceramics - a composition of metal with oxides, nitrides, borides, obtained by powder metallurgy.

Metallic vickels are whisker-like crystals with a diameter of 0.5 - 2.0 microns and a length of 5 - 50 microns. Metal whiskers are of practical interest for the synthesis of new composite materials with a metal or plastic matrix.

Non-porous thin-film materials are characterized by a high atomic packing density. In terms of light reflection, this material is close to silver.

Cellular metals are formed during the deposition of metal as a result of the penetration of vapors of organometallic compounds into the pores of any material. In this way, a cellular metal structure is formed.

10. Thin film materials for information storage devices

Any electronic computer, including a personal computer, contains an information storage device - a storage device capable of accumulating and storing a large amount of information.

The production of modern high-capacity magnetic storage devices is based on the use of thin-film materials. Thanks to the use of new magnetic materials and as a result of improved manufacturing technology for all thin-film elements of a magnetic storage device, the surface density of information recording has increased fivefold in a relatively short period of time.

Recording with a high surface density is carried out on a medium whose working layer is formed from a thin-film cobalt-containing material.

High recording density can only be achieved using converters whose thin-film magnetic core material is characterized by high saturation magnetic flux density and high magnetic permeability. To reproduce information recorded at high density, a highly sensitive thin-film element is used; the electrical resistance changes in a magnetic field. Such an element is called magnetoresistive. It is sprayed with a highly permeable magnetic material, such as permalloy.

Thus, with the use of thin-film magnetic materials in the manufacture of high-capacity information storage devices, a fairly high density of information recording has already been achieved. With the modernization of such storage devices and the introduction of new materials, one should expect a further increase in information density, which is very important for the development of modern technical means of recording, accumulating and storing information.

References

1. S.Kh. Karpenkov. Concepts of modern natural science. Moscow. 2001

2. Khomchenko G.P. Chemistry for those entering universities. - Higher School, 1985. - 357 p.

3. Furmer I.E. General chemical technology. - M.: Higher School, 1987. - 334 p.

4. Lakhtin Yu.M., Leontyeva V.P. Materials Science. -- M.: Mechanical Engineering, 1990

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Lesson-seminar 11th grade

This seminar, designed for 2 hours in non-chemistry classes, 3 hours in general education classes and 4–5 hours in natural science classes, is conducted as a general seminar at the end of the school course and aims to show students the role of chemistry as productive force of society.

PLAN SEMINAR

1. Chemical technology (definition, history of origin and development, role in modern production, classification of chemical production processes, tasks).

2. Biotechnology (definition, stages of formation, directions of biotechnology, areas of application).

3. Nanotechnology (definition, approaches to nanotechnology and their characteristics, nanomaterials, areas of application).

Teacher (introductory speech). The modern world is characterized by the rapid development of scientific and technological progress. In addition to improving traditional chemical technology, areas of science and industry that until recently were perceived as exotic are rapidly developing: biotechnology and nanotechnology. They are acquiring an increasingly important role in various spheres of life of each person individually and society as a whole: in everyday life (there is hardly a person who has not heard of GMOs - genetically modified organisms), in the economy, industry and agriculture (it is estimated that by 2015, goods and services produced on the basis of nanotechnology will cost more than one trillion dollars), in international relations (the world race for leadership in the field of nanotechnology has begun, in which the USA, Japan and China are succeeding today). Russia has only recently joined this race - it has adopted a priority national program for the development of nanotechnology, for which the government is allocating significant funds. It is clear that this area of science and production will require the training of high-class specialists. It is obvious that their training will be carried out at specially created departments and faculties of leading Russian universities. It is also obvious that your first acquaintance with bio- and nanotechnologies should be given by chemistry.

However, let's start with chemical technology.

Chemical technology

1st student. Technology is the science of production. Chemical technology– one of the most important sections of technology, which is understood as the science of the most economical methods and means of processing natural raw materials into consumer products and intermediate products for other branches of material production.

Let us briefly consider the history of the emergence and development of chemical technology. At first it was a descriptive section of applied chemistry. Then, in the first half of the 19th century, chemical technology became a separate branch of knowledge. In 1803, the Department of Chemical Technology was created at the Russian Academy of Sciences. Chemical technology finally became an independent scientific discipline at the beginning of the twentieth century, when the doctrine of the basic processes and apparatus of chemical production and the general laws of chemical technological processes was developed.

A new stage in the development of chemical technology was the use in the late 60s. XX century ideas, methods and technical means of cybernetics in chemical production, as a result of the development of which mathematical modeling and computer technologies appeared for optimization and automation of chemical processes.

The second student, who has prepared a report on the role of chemical technology as a scientific and production base for the most important industries, reveals it using diagram 1.

Scheme 1

Two other students talk about the classification of chemical production processes. Their message is accompanied by a demonstration of models of these processes used in the study of chemistry.

3rd student. The whole variety of chemical production processes comes down to 5 groups.

1. Mechanical– crushing, screening*, granulating, tableting, transportation of solid materials, packaging.(Demonstration of video clips and samples of products from this group of chemical processes (granules, tablets, packaging samples, etc.).)

2. Hydrodynamic– movement of liquids and gases through pipelines and apparatus, pneumatic transport, flotation, centrifugation, sedimentation, decantation, mixing.(Demonstration of video fragments of specific chemical production, the operation of a centrifuge (the teacher emphasizes to students that this process is widely used in household appliances - washing machines, separators, etc.), flotation of sulfur powder, sedimentation of impurities contained in water using coagulants , decanting the solution from settled lime milk, mixing solutions using glass rods equipped with a rubber tip (the teacher asks to give examples of mixing that are familiar to students from everyday practice).

4th student (continues to classify chemical production processes).

3. Thermal– evaporation, condensation, heating, cooling, evaporation. (Demonstration of video clips of specific chemical production and laboratory installations, as well as: distillation of water in a distiller or home-made installation, evaporation of a solution of table salt.)

4. Diffusion– absorption, adsorption, distillation, rectification, drying, crystallization, sublimation, extraction, filtration, ion exchange.(Demonstration of video fragments of specific chemical production and laboratory installations, equipment and instruments (filtration installations, muffle furnaces, crystallizers, ion exchangers, including household ion exchange filters for water), as well as: absorption using the example of dissolving hydrogen chloride or ammonia in water (“ fountain in a flask"), adsorption of dye from solution by activated carbon, extraction of chlorophyll with ethyl alcohol.)

5. Chemical, which are based on the chemical transformation of feedstock.

This group of technological processes of chemical production is also covered by two students.

5th student. Chemical processes can be classified according to various criteria.

By raw materials: mineral, animal, as well as processing of coal, oil, gas.(it would be appropriate for the teacher to ask students to remember coke production and the main areas of refining oil, natural and associated gases.)

By consumer or product characteristics: production of dyes, fertilizers, medicines, etc.(the teacher asks students to remember the classification and production of the most important mineral fertilizers.)

By groups of the periodic table : obtaining alkali and alkaline earth metals, aluminum, etc.(the teacher asks students to remember the electrolytic preparation of alkali and alkaline earth metals and aluminum.)

6th student. Chemical processes are also classified according to the following criteria.

By type of chemical reaction: oxidation, reduction, hydrogenation, chlorination, polymerization, etc.(the teacher asks the students to remember and give examples of appropriate reactions.)

By phase: homogeneous (liquid-phase and gas-phase), heterogeneous.(the teacher asks students to remember and give examples of relevant processes.)

Teacher (summarizes). Modern chemical technology puts tasks integrated use of raw materials and energy, combination and cooperation of various industries, continuity of technological processes in production, environmental safety and economic feasibility.

However, it should be emphasized that modern production of substances and materials often turns to the help of living organisms and biological processes, i.e. to biotechnology.

Biotechnology

7th student (gives a definition and talks about the history of the emergence and development of biotechnology). Biotechnology – one of the most important sections of technology, which is understood as the science of using living organisms and biological processes in production.

Three stages in the development of this science and industry can be distinguished: early, or spontaneous, biotechnology, new biotechnology and the latest biotechnology.

Early or spontaneous biotechnology is associated with microbiological fermentation processes familiar to man since ancient times, underlying: baking, winemaking, brewing, cheese making, fermented milk products, fermentation, flax fiber production, etc.

The processes of spontaneous biotechnology are based on the activity of microorganisms and enzymes, which retain their biological activity under certain conditions and outside a living cell.(The student accompanies this part of his message with a demonstration of a collection of food products made in this way (a bottle of wine, a piece of bread and cheese, etc.).)

New biotechnology associated with the introduction of the term “biotechnology” into science in the mid-70s. XX century and the use of biological methods to combat environmental pollution (biological treatment), produce valuable biologically active substances (antibiotics, enzymes, hormonal drugs, vitamins, etc.), to protect plants from pests and diseases.(Demonstration of samples of biotechnological products.) Based on microbiological synthesis, industrial methods have been developed for the production of proteins and amino acids used as feed additives.

Latest biotechnology is associated not only with the development of diverse microbiological synthesis, but, first of all, with the emergence and development of genetic engineering, cellular engineering and biological engineering. The achievements of the latest biotechnology are based on the integration of such biological disciplines as microbiology, biochemistry, biophysics, molecular genetics and immunology.

8th student (talks about genetic engineering). Genetic engineering is a branch of biotechnology associated with the targeted construction of new, non-existent in nature, combinations of genes introduced into living cells capable of synthesizing a certain product.

Combinations of genes designed by genetic engineers function in the recipient cell and synthesize the necessary protein. Of particular practical interest is the introduction of various gene constructs into the genome of animals and plants: both synthesized and genes of other animals, plants and humans. Such plants and animals are called genetically modified, and the products of their processing – transgenic products. Transgenic corn is added to confectionery and bakery products, soft drinks; Modified soybeans are included in refined oils, margarines, baking fats, salad sauces, mayonnaise, pasta, cooked sausages, confectionery products, protein supplements, animal feed and even baby food.(Demonstration of a collection of food products containing genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and labels with their markings.)

Genetic modification of plants makes it possible to create plant varieties with a high level of resistance to weeds and pests. This reduces the consumption of herbicides several times, thereby reducing the chemical load on the environment. Currently, herbicide-resistant transgenic varieties of cotton, rapeseed, soybeans, corn, and sugar beets are being sown abroad.

Agricultural practice includes transgenic varieties with improved consumer properties, for example, peas, soybeans, and cereals with improved protein composition. Transgenic grainless tomatoes have been created and seedless cherries, watermelon, and citrus fruits are on the way.

Using genetic engineering methods in Canada, grapes were obtained that were transplanted with a frost resistance gene from wild cabbage, and vineyards appeared in this country for the first time.

In animal husbandry, highly productive breeds of animals (sheep, pigs, chickens, etc.) have been obtained using genetic engineering.

In pharmacology, genetic engineering methods have made it possible to create highly effective vaccines against herpes, tuberculosis, and cholera; in the chemical industry, new forms of yeast and bacteria capable of destroying oil spills.

9th student (talks about cell engineering). Cell engineering– a method for constructing a new type of cell.

Cell culture allows you to maintain their viability outside the body in artificially created conditions of a liquid or solid nutrient medium. Such cell clones are used as factories for the production of biologically active substances, for example, the hormone erythropoietin, which stimulates the formation of red blood cells. Using cell engineering methods, blood clotting factors (III and VIII) were obtained for the treatment of hemophilia, insulin for the treatment of diabetes, and the surface protein of the hepatitis B virus for obtaining the corresponding vaccine.

The most well-known phenomenon of cellular engineering to the average person is the cloning of living organisms (remember the famous Dolly the sheep). The silkworm clones bred by Academician V.A.Strunikov are known throughout the world.

The most promising direction today is cloning in the field of experimental embryology, the success of which is associated primarily with the so-called embryonic stem cells. The most important property of such cells is that the genetic information contained in their nuclei is, as it were, in a state of rest, i.e. In embryonic stem cells, the differentiation program into one tissue or another has not yet been launched. They can take on any program and develop into one of 150 possible types of germ cells. Embryonic cells are just waiting for a special signal to begin one of their transformations. This amazing ability is dictated by the excess in the cell of RNA of all genes responsible for the growth of the embryo at an early stage of embryonic development. The factors that make embryonic cells unique allow them to be used to grow a huge array of tissues and any human organ. It should be noted that islets of embryonic stem cells are present in various organs and tissues. It is these cells that make it possible to restore damaged organs and tissues and treat many serious diseases. However, it should be noted that experiments on human cloning and growing human embryonic stem cells are prohibited in many countries.

10th student (talks about biological engineering). Biological Engineering– methods of using microorganisms as bioreactors for the production of industrial products.

This section of biotechnology is especially important for Russia, which, unfortunately, lives mainly through the sale of resources. The average return of our oil fields does not exceed 50%. The Tatneft company, using a new unique microbiological technology for regulating the microflora of oil reservoirs, received an additional half a million tons of oil from the fields of Bashkiria.

Microbiological technologies are effective for producing non-ferrous and ferrous metals. Traditional technology based on roasting results in the release of large amounts of sulfur and nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere, which form the basis of “acid rain.” Technology based on biological engineering does not have these disadvantages. In the Krasnoyarsk Territory, for example, there are eight microbiological fermenters that make it possible to extract gold from rocks with a low content of this metal. The modern world, experiencing an acute shortage of copper, molybdenum and other non-ferrous metals, is looking forward to its resolution using microbiological methods.

It is worth noting the work completed at the Institute of Microbiology of the Russian Academy of Sciences on a new method for reducing methane concentrations in mines using methanotrophic bacteria. Is it worth talking about the relevance of this work against the backdrop of frequent media reports about tragedies in coal mines?

The most promising direction in biological engineering is the creation of immobilized enzymes.

Immobilized enzymes are enzyme preparations whose molecules are covalently bound to a polymer carrier that is insoluble in water. Such enzymes are effective for use in various fields of the national economy. Thus, invertase obtained from yeast can be used to produce artificial honey; lactase – to produce dietary milk with a low content of lactose and glucose-galactose alcohols from whey; urease – for blood purification in the artificial kidney apparatus.

Immobilized forms of bacterial proteases have been developed, which are used to obtain protein hydrolysates and mixtures of amino acids for tube and intravenous nutrition in medical practice. For the treatment of cardiovascular diseases, an immobilized streptokinase preparation has been developed, which can be injected into blood vessels to dissolve blood clots formed in them. The use of immobilized enzymes for analytical purposes (in the form of enzyme electrodes) is promising.

Nanotechnology

11th student (defines nanotechnology and talks about two approaches that exist in it, the speech is accompanied by a computer presentation). Nanotechnology refers to the controlled synthesis of molecular structures for the production of substances and materials not from conventional raw materials, but directly from atoms and molecules using special devices operating on the basis of artificial intelligence.

The name of the new science was formed as a result of adding the prefix “nano” to the word “technology,” which denotes a reduction in the scale of measurements by a billion times: 1 nanometer (1 nm) is one millionth of a millimeter, i.e. 1 nm = 10 –9 m. In order to figuratively represent this value, we use the following comparison: 1 nm is approximately a million times less than the thickness of a school textbook page. Ten hydrogen atoms arranged in a row are 1 nm long, and, amazingly, the human DNA molecule has a diameter of exactly 1 nm.

Nanotechnologies include processes for manipulating objects with sizes ranging from 1 to 100 nm.

In nanotechnology, there are generally only two approaches. They are conventionally called “top-down” and “bottom-up”.

The first approach is “top-down” is based on reducing the size of the processed raw materials or materials to microscopic parameters. For example, semiconductor devices are produced by processing blanks for them with laser or X-ray beams. These rays, passing through the stencil, create the necessary chip structure on the source material. This type of nanotechnology is called photolithography(lithography is the process of making an impression of an image carved on stone onto a material). An analogue of it can be applying drawings or inscriptions to T-shirts. A variation of this method in the nanoworld is imprint lithography. In this case, a pattern is applied to a rubber-like silica gel polymer using probe tools, which is then covered with a kind of molecular ink. Impressions of such “rubber printing” can be made on any surface (for example, to obtain nanoscopic computer chips).

The result is the planned circuit configuration. The resolution of such chips (the minimum size of its elements) is determined by the wavelength of the laser. In this way, circuits with element sizes up to 100 nm are obtained. Consequently, this approach makes it possible to obtain the largest materials and devices of the nanoworld.

The second nanotechnology approach is “bottom up” consists in the fact that the necessary construction is carried out by assembly from lower order elements (atoms, molecules, clusters, etc.). For this type of nanotechnology, probe scanning tools are used. They can move atoms or molecules along the surface of a substrate by pushing or lifting them. In this case, the probe of the scanning instrument acts as a kind of excavator or bulldozer of the nanoworld.

The main methods of this approach in nanotechnology are: molecular synthesis, self-assembly, nanoscopic crystal growth and polymerization.

Molecular synthesis consists of creating molecules with predetermined properties by assembling them from molecular fragments or atoms. This is how medicines are produced. Many modern drugs, including new generation antibiotics or the famous Viagra, are products of molecular synthesis. Molecular nanoscopic synthesis also solves the problems of packaging such drugs in special molecular shells, which make it possible to deliver these drugs directly to the affected areas of the body.

Self-assembly is a method of nanotechnology that is based on the ability of atoms or molecules to independently assemble into more complex molecular structures.

The principle of self-assembly is based on the principle of minimum energy - the constant desire of atoms and molecules to move to the lowest energy level available to them. If this can be achieved by combining with other molecules, then the original molecules will combine; if this requires changing their position in space, then they will reorient themselves.

A unique model for illustrating the principle of least energy can be the ancient Greek myth of Sisyphus, who with difficulty lifted a stone to the top of a mountain, but it stubbornly tried to roll down the slope, i.e. occupy the lowest energy level.

Another model that allows one to visualize self-assembly based on the orientation of molecules in space is the behavior of a compass, which can be shaken and turned, but its arrow will invariably point north, minimizing the energy of a small magnet attached to it relative to the Earth’s field. To achieve this position, no work needs to be done on the arrow; it does it naturally. Self-assembly methods are based on the idea of creating nanoscopic raw materials from atoms and molecules that, like a compass needle, naturally assemble into structures of the required material.

In living organisms, self-assembly is the basis of assimilation processes, i.e. processes of synthesis of proteins, fats, carbohydrates, polynucleotides necessary for a specific living organism. The structuring and assembly of biological tissues occur at the atomic-molecular level, and living organisms carry them out with high efficiency. Nanosynthesis can only dream of this. However, nanofabricators introduce specific atoms or molecules onto the surface of a substrate or onto a previously assembled nanostructure. Next, the molecules of the initial nanomaterial are oriented in space, assembling into a specific nanostructure. There is no need for the slow and tedious construction of such a structure using a probe tool. This is the advantage of self-assembly.

It is now possible to create computer storage devices using self-assembly. It can also be used to protect a surface from corrosion or give it special properties, such as Teflon, used to make cookware. Using self-assembly, prototypes of hydrophilic and hydrophobic glasses were produced, which can find wide application, for example, in the automotive industry, the production of building glass, and in optics.

Nanoscopic crystal growth is a nanotechnology method in which crystals can be grown from solution using seed crystals (crystallization centers).

The silicon blocks used to create microchips are produced this way.

This method can be used to grow long, rod-like carbon nanotubes or silicon nanowires. Such nanomaterials have unique conducting properties and are used in many areas of optics and electronics.

Polymerization is a method of nanotechnology that is based on the production of nanomaterials in the form of polymers from initial monomers using polymerization or polycondensation reactions. To implement it, so-called gene machines are used, which make it possible to synthesize various DNA fragments (they are called oligonucleotides from the Greek “oligos” - a little, insignificantly, in contrast to a polynucleotide - whole DNA). Then, from these fragments, using the same gene machines, they construct the matrices necessary for the production of a particular substance. The synthesized DNA templates are inserted into the DNA of bacteria, which then produce many copies of the desired protein. This allows you to efficiently build protein factories to produce almost any protein you choose. An example of the practical application of this nanotechnology method is the production of insulin for the treatment of diabetes.

12th student (talks about the classification and representatives of some groups of nanomaterials). In 2004, the Seventh International Conference on Nanostructured Materials was held in Wiesbaden, Germany, at which the following classification was proposed.

Nanoporous solids. To obtain them, sol-gel technology is used. It is based on the drying of dispersed systems. The products of this technology are nanomaterials containing metal oxides ( Al 2 O 3, V 2 O 5, Fe 2 O 3 etc.), which can be used as catalysts, supercapacitors, fuel cells, etc.

Nanoparticles- these are, for example, the oligonucleotides already mentioned above, used in gene machines to create DNA to produce the desired protein on an industrial scale. In addition, these are carrier particles used to deliver drugs to specified points in the body.

Nanotubes. Nanotubes are an entirely new form of material. There are semiconductor and metal nanotubes. Of greatest interest are carbon semiconductor nanotubes, which have the shape of tiny cylinders with a diameter of 0.5 to 10 nm and a length of about 1 micron. Single-walled carbon nanotubes can be thought of as a single layer of graphite rolled into a roll (unlike fullerene, which is a football-like molecule formed from a single layer of graphite).

(When considering nanotubes, it would be appropriate for the teacher to recall the phenomenon of allotropy and especially the four allotropic modifications of carbon: diamond, graphite, carbyne and fullerene.)

Carbon nanotubes are a crystalline structure similar to fullerene, but assembled into a different form, and therefore have different properties (it is not without reason that some researchers propose to consider nanotubes another modification of carbon). Carbon nanotubes are capable of absorbing and retaining hydrogen in large quantities, making them a valuable material for creating hydrogen fuel engines and hydrogen batteries. Carbon nanotubes have semiconducting properties. Their use will make it possible to arrive at low-temperature cathodes, in which the voltage will be reduced to 500 V (unlike the current television cathodes, which operate at a voltage of 10 kV). Multiwalled nanotubes have high tensile strength, which can reach 63 GPa, which is 50–60 times higher than high-quality steels. The pressure that such tubes can withstand reaches 100 GPa, which is thousands of times higher than traditional fibers. This allows them to be used in the manufacture of materials for bulletproof vests and glass, as well as for the production of earthquake-resistant building materials. Carbon nanotubes have a very low density, which makes it possible to obtain high-strength composite materials from them, which are needed in military and aerospace technology, as well as in the automotive industry. Carbon nanotubes have great catalytic activity, so they can be used to carry out chemical reactions that are impossible under normal conditions, for example, the direct synthesis of ethyl alcohol from synthesis gas (a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen). The use of nanotubes as catalyst carriers is determined by their chemical stability and large surface area.

Nanodispersions– dispersed systems in which the phase particles are nanosized and distributed in a liquid medium. Their main application is the controlled delivery of drugs into the body, as well as the production of modern cosmetic materials (tanning products, mascaras, various creams).

Nanostructured surfaces and films. First of all, these are the surfaces of artificial and donor organs, which are coated with nanostructured materials to avoid rejection of implanted organs.

Nanocrystals and nanograins. Using colloidal chemistry methods, it was possible to obtain many well-known materials in nanocrystalline form: semiconductors, magnetic materials, etc. The use of such crystals in metallurgy makes it possible to increase the strength and other qualities of steel. This steel is used to make not only thinner, but also more durable pipes that can withstand high pressure, for example, in the gas processing and gas transportation sectors. Nanocrystals and nanograins make it possible to process surfaces with molecular precision. They can also be used in medicine for the production of new generation anticancer drugs. Nanograin materials offer great opportunities for creating light-emitting devices with low power consumption, as well as media for magnetic recording at ultra-high speed.

A group of two or three students makes a report on the application of nanotechnology in various areas of modern society, using diagram 2 ( see p. 14).

Scheme 2

Application of nanotechnology in various fields
life of society

13th student. Energy. An alternative to the use of fossil fuels (natural gas, oil, coal, etc.) is the use of photovoltaic cells that directly convert sunlight into electrical energy - the so-called solar panels and increasing their efficiency. Such devices are based primarily on silicon and, less commonly, germanium. Silicon solar cells are used in residential construction and industrial production, as well as in calculators, etc. Sunlight is focused on a semiconductor, which is a single crystal of silicon or a polycrystal of it. Obtaining such crystals is the task of nanotechnology. Another alternative to using the energy obtained from burning fossil fuels is the creation of new fuel elements, such as carbon nanotubes, which have a high adsorption capacity for hydrogen.

Energy problems are indirectly solved with the help of nanotechnology by the possibility of using nanodevices in semiconductor information technologies.

Electronics. Nanotechnology already makes it possible to produce semiconductor elements ranging in size from 30 to 100 nm. In the future, the size of such elements will be reduced to 35–50 nm. This opportunity will be provided by the use of carbon nanotubes and new types of storage devices (for example, single-electron memory) in the electronics industry. In turn, this will increase the information transfer speed to approximately 10 gigabits per second. In addition, it is important to improve information storage technology, which is solved through the creation of terabit storage devices, which make it possible to increase the recording density on magnetic disks by approximately 1000 times.

Aviation and astronautics. In aviation, nanotechnology primarily influences such a factor in the development of aviation transport as the creation of new structural materials. Two other factors: the development of engine technology and improvement of the aerodynamics of aircraft, also depend on nanotechnology, but to a lesser extent. Using nanotechnology, heat-resistant ceramic composite materials (that is, materials consisting of two or more components) capable of withstanding temperatures of 1000–1600 °C and polymer composites that can withstand temperatures of 200–400 °C will be created. In astronautics, the requirements for composites are even higher: they must be very heat-resistant (withstand temperatures of about 3000 °C), ultra-light and ultra-strong. These are the materials that were used to make our Buran and are used in the manufacture of the American Shuttles.

14th student. Medicine. Nanotechnologies make it possible to create materials with “molecular recognition” and organize mass production of biosensors capable of monitoring the human body for a long time, which will make it possible to carry out early diagnosis of certain diseases. In addition, there is the prospect of using special nanoscopic devices called nanorobots for diagnosing and treating diseases. Introduced into the human body, they will be able to clean blood vessels from atherosclerotic deposits, destroy young cancer tumors, correct damaged DNA molecules, conduct a complete diagnosis, deliver medicine to specific organs and even cells, etc. The creation and improvement of so-called DNA chips will make it possible to easily carry out analysis genetic information of an individual and conduct a treatment course based on the creation of individual medicines in accordance with this information. The use of nanotechnology makes it possible to obtain new biomaterials and artificial functional polymers - substitutes for human tissue.

Nanotechnology is used to create nanotools and nanomanipulators used in medicine. Thus, nanotweezers and nanoneedles have already appeared. For example, to make nanotweezers, two carbon nanotubes with a diameter of 50 nm are used, located parallel on a glass fiber substrate. These tubes converge and diverge when voltage is applied to them, simulating tweezers. The Japanese have created nanotweezers, which are only 3 nm long, which allows them to manipulate individual molecules. Domestic scientists from Novosibirsk proposed their nanotools - nanoneedles capable of making injections into cells.

Nanotechnologies will also make it possible to organize the production of biologically active substances using self-assembly methods. To solve this problem, nanotechnologists pay special attention to embryonic stem cells, which can turn into cells of various human organs (nerve, epithelial, liver cells, etc.). The processes of stem cell transformation are associated with the mechanisms of self-assembly of cellular structures. The use of stem cells will help replace damaged organs and partially “repair” damaged areas.

Biotechnology. This area of application of nanotechnology has already been discussed, but once again it is worth paying attention to the relationship and significance of these two technologies. In its original meaning, biotechnology was the use of DNA synthesis methods to produce specific proteins at the nanoscale. The role of “factories” for protein production was played by Escherichia coli bacteria, in which a fragment of DNA was replaced with a section necessary for the synthesis of a specific protein. The most striking examples of such construction are the production of insulin, body growth factor (somatotropin) and factor VIII (or coagulating factor, which causes blood clotting and is used in hemophilia), which are widely used in medicine.

15th student. Agriculture. According to the UN, about 7 billion people currently live on Earth, and according to forecasts, by 2050 the planet's population could reach 100 billion people. Already now the food problem is global for humanity. Any average person can observe the rise in food prices day after day.

The solution to humanity's food problem depends, first of all, on the widespread use of genetic engineering and biotechnology to create plant varieties with increased productivity and nutritional value, as well as the creation of highly productive animal breeds and strains of microorganisms.

Nanotools and enzymatic techniques used in biotechnology and genetic engineering make it possible to solve these problems at a faster pace. Thus, the production of new varieties of genetically modified soybeans, well known to everyone, is rapidly evolving. Traditional varieties of tomatoes, potatoes, corn, peas, wheat, rice, etc., as well as exotic sweet potatoes and papaya, in agricultural practice are giving way to varieties created using genetic engineering that are resistant to weeds and pests and have increased productivity.

Ecology. With the help of nanotechnology, it is possible to protect the environment from harmful effects associated with an increase in the temperature of the Earth's atmosphere, destruction of the ozone layer, dioxin pollution, and acid rain.

The average temperature of the Earth has increased by 0.5 °C in just 40 years of the last century. Average temperatures are predicted to rise another 3°C in the new century. The consequences of this threaten humanity with many troubles: the level of the world's oceans will rise by 65?cm (the coastal areas of many countries will be flooded), there will be a radical climate change, a displacement of natural zones, etc. Nanotechnology provides the opportunity to reduce the temperature effects on the Earth's atmosphere with the help of:

search for alternative energy sources,

improving solar panels,

reducing the content of carbon monoxide (IV) in exhaust gases.

The destruction of the ozone layer under the influence of freons (refrigerants, aerosols) widely used in industry and household appliances can lead to a significant increase in skin cancer and leukemia. Therefore, nanotechnology is faced with the task of creating substances and materials that replace freons.

The problem of environmental pollution with dioxin is associated with the widespread use of chlorine-containing compounds (polyvinyl chloride, chlorinated hydrocarbons, etc.) for industrial purposes.

With the help of nanotechnology, new materials are synthesized that can replace chlorine-containing polymers; biosensors for long-term and accurate environmental monitoring are being created; Nanopowders are produced to combat environmental pollution, and, first of all, oil spills; Nanofilters are being designed to prevent the release of dioxin and other waste into the environment, including emissions of sulfur and nitrogen oxides from transport and industrial installations. For the latter purpose, catalysts and their carriers created using nanotechnology can also play an important role.

Optics. Reducing the size of crystal grains to nanometer scales makes it possible to create new optical media from glassy materials with very high and controllable refractive indices, changes in color, strength, etc. Such media are called nanoglasses. Their areas of application are extremely diverse. For example, using nanotechnology, honeycomb structures are created on the surface of glass and filled with various nanomaterials. Such glasses can be used to create highly efficient devices for storing and transmitting digital information. Also, nanoglasses combined with short-wave lasers will make it possible to produce high-power optical storage devices and film materials with increased image clarity. Nanoglasses can be used to make optical switches and thin optical waveguides. In the minds of the average person, “chameleon” glasses and car windows that change the intensity of darkening are rarely associated with ideas about the nanoworld, but this is exactly the case.

At the Beijing Aquatics Center, where the Olympics recently ended, the roof was made using nanoglass, which can change color intensity depending on the intensity of natural light, and also bend inward or outward depending on the temperature.

Teacher. Nanoscience and nanotechnology are an integrated area of modern, previously considered autonomous, sciences and technologies: physics, chemistry, biology and their specializations (biochemistry, biophysics, atomic microscopy), as well as information technology, biotechnology, materials science. Consequently, nanoscience is interdisciplinary in nature, and therefore it is quite logical to assume that an understanding of this science will be required in any area of your future professional activity.

We were convinced of the effectiveness of this seminar from our own experience when we conducted it at school No. 531 in Moscow and school No. 33 in Engels, Saratov region.

O.S.GABRIELYAN,
S.A.SLADKOV,
E.E. OSTROUMOVA

* Sorting of bulk materials (coal, ore, etc.) by particle size (pieces) on special devices - screens. – Note edit.

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