What does the mining industry do? Mining industry

Man began to develop the natural resources of the planet in ancient times. That is why the mining industry is the oldest sector of the world economy. The extraction and processing of various minerals has allowed man to discover a new world of unlimited possibilities. Now this area of ​​industry is the basis of all world production and brings states the highest budget revenues.

A little about the main thing: description, features, characteristics

The global mining industry is a complex branch of the global economy, which is responsible for the extraction and beneficiation of various types of mineral raw materials.

If we classify the industry according to the type of minerals extracted, we can distinguish the following areas:

• mining and processing of metals (in turn divided into non-ferrous and ferrous metallurgy);
• fuel industry (this includes all minerals that can serve as a source of energy: oil, gas, coal, oil shale);
• mining and processing of non-metallic mineral raw materials (also has many areas, for example, the chemical industry, mining of construction materials, and so on);

Despite the fact that this industry occupies a small percentage in the structure of the world economy (about 8%), the mining industry is the main source of income for many countries. This is due to the fact that the distribution of minerals around the planet is uneven, which means that some countries have an excess of mineral raw materials, while others experience a significant shortage. Trade between states allows you to obtain the necessary raw materials for economic development and meet the needs of the population, as well as replenish the state budget through the sale of excess minerals.

Despite its profitability, this industry is quite difficult to master. The path from the extraction of raw materials to its sale is very complex and depends on many conditions, both economic and natural. The location of the mining industry is influenced by three main factors:

• Raw materials. Mining and processing of mineral raw materials is accompanied by a huge amount of waste. So, for example, from several tens of tons of rock you can get up to 5-10 kg of pure product. Thus, transporting rock to the processing site will be a very costly and economically unprofitable procedure, and therefore all enterprises for the extraction, enrichment and processing of minerals are located directly near the deposits. This will avoid transport costs and significantly reduce the cost of the product.
• Economic. This factor is aimed at the ratio of invested capital to develop the industry and the expected profit.
• Consumer. This factor is aimed at finding potential buyers to whom finished products will be sold. It is important to consider that some types of raw materials are very complex and costly to transport over long distances, which means that enterprises should be located directly closer to potential and actual consumers.

All over the planet. Geography of industries

The geography of the mining industry is determined by the uneven distribution of minerals across the Earth. The difference between the countries of the North and the South is especially noticeable:

• Nordic countries(states of North America and northern Eurasia). These territories can almost completely satisfy their needs for raw materials, this also applies to mineral resources and fuels.
• Southern countries are predominantly rich in one or two types of minerals (the exceptions are African countries and Australia). Island states are in a particularly bad situation; they often have no reserves of raw materials at all. Such countries are forced to meet their needs through trade.

Also, mining areas are classified according to the level of development of countries. For example, highly developed countries of the world with stable and prosperous economies specialize in metal mining. Moreover, both black and rare and precious. Particularly prominent are lead, chromium, molybdenum, zinc and, of course, gold.

Developing countries excel in the extraction of oil, tin, bauxite, copper and other minerals. It is noteworthy that after the “energy crisis” that shook Europe in the 50s, many developed countries changed their policies on the extraction and development of their own deposits and switched to austerity mode. They met their needs at the expense of third world states, because they did not have the opportunity to develop their own mineral resources on their own. Attracting foreign capital made it possible to begin the development of huge deposits of mineral raw materials, which in turn led to significant economic growth and the creation of new jobs.

Palm of the championship. Leading countries in resource extraction

The essence of the global economy is that there is no identical development of the same industry in different countries Oh. The mining industry is no exception. While some states hold the palm in the extraction of a particular resource and even have the opportunity to export surpluses, others can only barely meet the needs of their country and are forced to buy additional necessary raw materials.

Thus, 5 leaders have emerged in the world, which extract about 70% of all resources of our planet. Huge deposits of all kinds of minerals are concentrated on the territory of these countries (sometimes even the entire periodic table), but often the state specializes in only one or two types of raw materials. Also, production volumes do not depend on the territory; a country can be large and have many promising deposits, but the low level of the economy and undeveloped infrastructure do not allow them to begin their development. But let's return to the leading countries:

• Australia;
• Canada;
• China;
• Russia.

As we can see, the first three countries belong to economically developed states, and the last two are following the path of post-socialism. In addition to the leaders, there are “second echelon” countries; they have huge reserves of raw materials on their territory, but do not yet have the opportunity to develop them in full. However, they are diligently moving forward on this issue, mainly by attracting foreign capital and introducing private investment. These include Brazil, Kazakhstan, India, South Africa, Indonesia, Ukraine and Mexico.

The list of leaders of the “third tier” countries is completed; they can boast of one, maximum two mining industries: Saudi Arabia, Chile, Kuwait, Morocco, Zambia, Jamaica, Peru, Guinea.

And now a detailed list of minerals and leading countries in the production of this or that type of raw material:

• Copper. The African mining industry relies on this type of raw material; the largest deposits are concentrated in Zambia. Chile and Peru are also leaders.
• Tin. Huge deposits of this metal are concentrated in Southeast Asia, with Malaysia and Indonesia leading the way. And in South America, Peru holds the lead.
• Bauxite. The leaders in production are the Caribbean country of Jamaica and the African state of Guinea.
• Phosphorites. The largest reserves are concentrated in Morocco, China, and America.
• Oil. The Persian Gulf countries should definitely be here - Iran and Saudi Arabia, and Venezuela is also in the top three.
• Gas. Russia remains the absolute leader, but Iran and Qatar are in no way inferior to it.
• Potassium. America, as well as its neighboring Canada, leads in the production of this valuable mineral raw material. Russia has quite good reserves of potassium salts.

Order is important everywhere. Industries and structure of the mining industry

The mining industry has its own structure, so it is much easier to classify industries depending on the type of raw materials mined. The fact is that each mineral is mined in a special and specific way, but some of them have similar stages, for example, at the development or enrichment stage. This makes it possible to clearly distinguish between types of activities by type of raw material, which is a very important aspect in the training of qualified personnel, as well as the design and creation of special equipment.

Let's look at the main branches of the mining industry:

• Fuel industry. This includes all types of raw materials, the combustion of which can produce the most valuable resource for humanity - energy. First of all, we are talking about oil and gas, because these are the best combustible minerals. More accessible types of fuel are coal (both hard and brown), various types of shale and, of course, peat.
• Mining and chemical industry. Specializes in non-metallic raw materials. These are mainly minerals that can be used as chemical or pharmaceutical raw materials. We are talking about such minerals as phosphorus, sulfur, arsenic, various types of salts, soda.
• Mining industry. The heaviest and most expensive industry, it is engaged in the extraction of metals, both ferrous and non-ferrous.
• Extraction of building materials. Most often, waste from other industries is used as raw materials, but some types of minerals are developed independently. Basically, these are cement, shell rock, lime, basalt and all kinds of granite. The latter is used as a finishing material.
• Precious metals and stones, as well as mining of semi-precious minerals. This is the most elite branch of the mining industry. We are talking about diamonds, rubies, sapphires and other stones. Of the metals, naturally, gold, silver and, of course, platinum stand out.

Methods for extracting mineral raw materials. Industry technologies

Speaking about the mining industry of the world, one cannot fail to mention the main methods of extracting raw materials. The method of development depends on the type of deposit, as well as the technical capabilities of the country. Let's look at the most basic ones:

• If the fossil lies on the surface or in the uppermost layers of the earth's crust, then its extraction can be carried out in the simplest and cheapest way - open. To extract raw materials from the subsoil, pits or quarries are formed that cover the entire area of ​​the deposit. Most often, building materials, sometimes coal and iron, are mined this way.
• The mining method is used to extract minerals located in deeper layers of the crust. This is mainly the development of deposits of coal, rare metals and precious stones.
• If the fossil is in liquid or gaseous form, then extraction is carried out through wells. Most often this is the development of oil and gas reserves on ocean shelves.
• Many rare or radioactive elements can only be obtained by electrolysis or leaching, such minerals include uranium.
• Many minerals are found in a dissolved state in sea or groundwater. In this way, it is possible to extract from water not only minerals such as iodine, rubidium, bromine, lithium, strontium, cesium, but also rare non-ferrous metals.

Nowadays, the development of new types of mineral extraction, for example, from sea water or from the bottom of the ocean, is being more actively developed. In the future, it is planned to extract mineral raw materials from extraterrestrial objects - on other planets, on satellites and asteroids, and even in outer space.

From extraction to processing. Mining enterprises

The peculiarity of this area of ​​industry is that in places where explored minerals occur, not only mining is carried out, but also a whole series of complex activities. The whole job is as follows:

• assessment of field capacity and reserves;
• collection of useful theoretical information that is necessary for drawing up a detailed project of the field;
• organizing a special enterprise on the site of deposits;

Thus, depending on the type of development of feedstock, mining enterprises can be as follows:

• mine - a classic underground mining method;
• mine - usually these are quarries or pits (sometimes it is a complex various enterprises under unified management;
• quarry - an enterprise where mining is carried out using an open-pit method (if we are talking about coal, the quarry is called an open-pit mine);
• mine - an enterprise specializing in the extraction of placer minerals (rare metals and stones);
• field - this is what is usually called a complex of oil and gas bearing wells.

Now let’s look separately at the largest and most developed sectors of the mining industry.

The oldest and most profitable area of ​​the industry is ferrous metallurgy

The clear leader of the mining industry is ferrous metallurgy. Look around, because we are surrounded by a huge amount of metal. It is no longer possible to imagine a world in which there is no iron. Buildings, transport, equipment, household items - this metal is found almost everywhere. I would especially like to highlight the leaders of this branch of the mining industry:

• The largest basins are concentrated in Russia, Ukraine, as well as China and South Africa.
• Russia, Germany, Japan, Ukraine and China lead in the production and export of ferrous metals.
• If we specifically consider steel production, the first place is occupied by China and the union of EU countries. But the largest corporation is located specifically in Luxembourg.

Valuable and rare. Metallurgy of non-ferrous metals

The second largest industry in the structure of the world's mining industry. Let's take a closer look at the types of raw materials and countries that are leaders in production or processing:

• Bauxite. All the largest deposits of raw materials for the aluminum industry are concentrated in South America, namely Guinea, Brazil and Jamaica. Australia can also be singled out separately.
• Zinc. It is very rarely found in free form, most often found in complex ores. Canada, the USA, Peru, India and China hold the lead in smelting this metal.
• Lead. Also goes as one of the components of polymetallic conglomerates. The leading countries in production and smelting are America and China.
• Copper is produced by Chile, Indonesia, Russia, the USA and Australia. You can also highlight Peru and China.
• Nickel is mined in New Caledonia and smelted in Indonesia, Australia and Russia and Canada.
• China is rich in tungsten (up to 70% of world volumes).
• Gold is mined and smelted in countries on all continents: South Africa, Canada, China, Russia, Peru, USA.

Energy is the basis of production. Mining of oil and gas

Another valuable and important resource in the mining industry is oil and gas. Currently, there is a strong struggle for the possession of these types of fuel. Oil prices significantly affect the exchange rates of different countries, the political situation in the world, and even the specifics of relations between countries. The absolute leaders of this industry are all countries located in the Persian Gulf, but Saudi Arabia and Iraq are firmly at the top of the list.

As for gas, this resource forms the basis of the mining industry of Russia and Qatar, which means that these countries dictate their own rules in the international arena for the sale and export of this fuel.

But on the other hand. Impact of mining on the environment

Unfortunately, the development of our planet’s resources does not pass without leaving a trace. Depletion of the Earth's interior causes irreparable damage to the stability of natural ecosystems. This is the main problem of the mining industry, which the leaders of countries, although they try, still cannot completely solve. Active scientific and engineering activities are underway, people are trying to come up with new mining methods that could minimize the damage caused to the earth's crust. Work is constantly underway to search for alternative sources of mineral raw materials and energy. But for now, all this is only possible in the future.

And at the moment, the mining industry is the main direction of the world economy, on which the economies of most countries of the world rest.

§ 3. Mining industry

Although the share of mining in global industrial production is gradually declining (its share of the GMP is only 8%), it continues to have a very large impact on international geographical divisions labor and geography world economy. It is the mining industry that is primarily associated with bridging the territorial gap between production areas and consumption areas, the formation of intercontinental cargo flows, and the development of new resource areas.

Mining industry ensures the extraction of mineral fuels, ores of ferrous, non-ferrous, rare and precious metals, as well as non-metallic raw materials. The range of this industry includes dozens of types of fuel and raw materials. But it is based on the extraction of fuels such as oil, natural gas and coal, such types of ore raw materials as iron, manganese, copper, polymetallic, aluminum ores, such types of non-metallic raw materials as table salts, potassium salts, phosphorites. In terms of production volume, coal, oil, and iron ore stand out, the world production of each of which exceeded 1 billion tons. Bauxite and phosphorites are mined over 100 million tons, manganese ores - more than 10 million tons, and other types of ore raw materials - much less. For example, global gold production in recent years has remained at 2.5 thousand tons.

The extraction of various types of mineral raw materials is distributed unequally between the countries of the North and South.

The countries of the North fully or almost completely meet their needs for coal, natural gas, polymetals, uranium, a number of alloying metals, gold, platinum, and potassium salts. Consequently, cargo flows of these types of mineral raw materials are located mainly within this group of countries. For example, the largest suppliers of uranium are Canada, Australia, potassium salts - Canada, Germany.

Iron ore is mined in 40 countries around the world. However, only a few countries shown in the figure play a decisive role. Among them, three main producers stand out - China, Brazil and Australia, which provide more than 2/3 of all world production. If we add India, Russia, Ukraine, the USA and South Africa, then these 8 leading countries will account for 9/10 of world production.

The main exporters of iron ore are Brazil, Australia, India, South Africa, and the importers are Western Europe, the USA, and Japan. They are primarily associated with the formation of stable sea “iron ore bridges”, which are clearly visible in Figure 41. In total, 900 million tons of iron ore per year, or 1/2 of its total production, enters world trade.

The second example of the dependence of the countries of the North on sources of raw materials located in the countries of the South is the mining of bauxite. Of the six leading bauxite-mining countries, which account for 4/5 of all world production, five belong to the countries of the South (see Table 31).

Since bauxite differs little from iron ore in terms of the content of the useful component (alumina) in the ore, which is 40-60%, they are quite transportable, especially when transported by sea transport. This is why bauxite-mining countries focus primarily on exports. The main flows of sea transportation of bauxite are directed from Brazil, Jamaica, Guinea, Australia to the USA and Western Europe.

Table 31

Top six countries by size of bauxite production, 2007

International geographical division labor in the mining industry has led to the formation of 5 main “mining powers” ​​in the world, which account for more than 2/3 of all production of raw materials and fuel. Three of them belong to economically developed Western countries - the USA, Canada, Australia, two - to post-socialist countries - Russia and China. Along with this top five, one can also distinguish a kind of “second echelon” of mining powers, which includes Brazil, India, South Africa, Ukraine, Kazakhstan, Indonesia, and Mexico. And the “third echelon” is formed by countries that stand out for any one large mining sub-sector. For Saudi Arabia and Kuwait this is oil, for Chile, Peru and Zambia - copper, for Guinea and Jamaica - bauxite, for Morocco - phosphorites, etc.

Maksakovsky V.P., Petrova N.N., Physical and economic geography of the world. - M.: Iris-press, 2010. - 368 pp.: ill.

Section 1. History of the mining industry.

Mining industry is a set of industries engaged in exploration and production ( mining) minerals, as well as their primary processing and production of semi-finished products (mining processing).

History of the mining industry

There are main groups in the mining industry industries: mineral energy raw materials (petroleum industry, gas industry, coal industry, peat industry, shale industry, uranium industry, geothermal); ores of ferrous and alloying metals (iron ore industry, manganese ore industry, chrome industry, tungsten industry, molybdenum industry, vanadium industry); non-ferrous ores metals(aluminum industry, copper industry, nickel industry, tin industry, lead-zinc industry, antimony industry); mining and chemical industry (mining of apatite, potassium salts, nepheline, saltpeter, sulfur pyrites, boron ores, phosphate raw materials); non-metallic industrial raw materials and building materials - graphite, asbestos (asbestos industry), gypsum, clay, granite, dolomite, limestone, quartz, kaolin, marl, chalk, feldspar; precious and semi-precious stones (diamond industry); hydromineral (mineral groundwater).

Development of the mining industry and its location industries are caused by both natural (presence in the subsoil of sufficient mineral resources of the required quality) and socio-economic factors. In pre-socialist formations, the development of the mining industry was spontaneous. Mining industries began to take shape in the 16th–18th centuries. based on decomposition medieval craft, the transformation of artisan miners into hired workers and the emergence of capitalist mining and mining-metallurgical manufactories. For certain branches of the mining industry, this ended with the development of capitalist relations (late 18th - first half of the 19th centuries). Industrial revolution of the late 18th - early 19th centuries. served as an incentive to increase the extraction of mineral raw materials, which included until the 2nd half of the 19th century. only solid minerals. With the development of metallurgy, there was an increase in ore and for burning coke and the use of mineral fuel in processing.

Steam power became an even larger buyer of coal. Large quantities of coal were required by rail transport. The demand for precious metals has also increased. All this led to the rapid development of the relevant branches of the mining industry. Average annual global mining production increased in the 1960s. 19th century to 225.3 million tons compared to the average annual production of 17.3 million tons for the first 20 years of the 19th century. During these years, the coal industry accounted for 80-83% of all mining products produced.

It occupied a dominant position in the extraction of coal and other types of minerals. In 1820-50, England alone accounted for an average of about 65% of the world's production of coal and tin ore, and about 50% of iron, copper and lead ores. In 1860-70, Europe's share continued to predominate in the production of coal, iron, manganese, lead and tin ores, phosphorites, and native sulfur. In the 70s 19th century thanks to the rapid development of the countries of Central Europe and USA share of coal industry products Britain fell to 52% of world coal production.

The use of mineral raw materials acquired enormous proportions at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, during the transition of industrialized capitalist countries to imperialism. The predominance of certain types of energy raw materials in the world capitalist economy caused fundamental changes in the structure of the world mining industry. In the 20th century, industrial and gas industries began to develop rapidly. In the mining industries the concentration of production is sharply increasing, in capitalist countries Large mining monopolies are created. In 1893, the Rhine-Westphalian Coal Syndicate was formed in the Republic of Germany, which in 1910 controlled 94.5% of Ruhr coal production. The mining industry quickly monopolized USA, whose share in world mining production increased from 2.4% at the beginning of the 19th century. up to 42% by the beginning of the 1st World War 1914-18. The expansion of demand for mineral raw materials in the context of intensified competition has led to an intensive search for new, cheaper sources.

Special attention monopolists imperialist states were attracted by the mineral wealth of colonial and dependent countries, where there were many untapped mineral reserves and cheap work force. As a result, in period, preceding the 1st World War war(1900-13), there was a tendency towards a reduction in the share Europe in the extraction of its traditional mineral resources. A significant role in this was played by the discovery and development of new deposits of manganese ores in India, phosphorites in North Africa (Algeria, Tunisia), and non-ferrous ores metals in Latin American countries (Peruvian Republic, Chile Republic), development of bauxite mining in USA and complex copper-nickel ores in Canada, involvement in the exploitation of large deposits sulfur on the Gulf Coast.

Since the mid-1920s, at the 1st stage of the general crisis of capitalism, when the struggle between monopolists imperialist states for sources of raw materials and the most profitable areas for investing capital, there was a further decline in Europe's share in the world production of iron ores and non-ferrous metal ores (lead), this region finally lost its role as the largest supplier of tin and phosphorites. At this time, the share of the United States in the extraction of cuprum ores (due to the development of the copper ore industry in African countries) and bauxite decreased as a result of the development of American capital large deposits discovered in 1915 in Dutch Guiana (modern) and in 1917 in British Guiana (modern). The share of the countries of the burning continent, Asia and Africa in the total production of the mining industry has increased significantly. South America getting big supplier black gold (mainly due to the development of rich deposits of the Lake Maracaibo basin in Venezuela), ores cupruma, lead and zinc. Specific gravity increases Asia in coal mining (expansion of exploitation of deposits in China, Japan, India), black gold(deposits of Indonesia, Iran and Iraq), iron ore (deposits India and China), lead ore (deposits of Burma), graphite (deposits of Korea). Exploration work has begun on the African continent and rich deposits of manganese ores are being developed on the Gold Coast (modern Ghana) and in the Union of South Africa (modern South Africa), and extensive industrial development of diamond deposits is being carried out in the Congo and gold Coast, development of new iron ore deposits in northern, western and southern Africa; deposits of uranium ore ores were discovered in the Congo. The influence of monopolists in the mining industry has increased even more. In the early 30s of the 20th century in the USA, one organization united 50% oil production, 4 organizations- 60% of iron ore production, 6 companies - 90% of anthracite production. IN Federal Republic of Germany 10 companies concentrated 45% of coal production. Bauxite mining and aluminum production in the USA and Canada were a monopolist of the largest aluminum enterprise association, Aluminum Comp. of America (Alcoa). IN England, Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) and France production aluminum was monopolized by 85-90%, with almost all products owned in each of these countries by one companies.

At the 2nd stage of general crisis capitalism, which began in the late 30s and early 40s, there was a further strengthening of inter-imperialist contradictions between the United States and Western Europe in the field of providing sources of mineral raw materials. During the 2nd World War wars 1939-45 in countries whose territories were not affected by hostilities, there was an increase in the production of mineral raw materials (mainly due to the utilization of reserve capacities and the involvement of lower-grade ores in the exploitation). After the war, mining production in leading capitalist countries, especially the USA, began to decline. In 1948, signs of a rapidly growing economic crisis. Coal production in capitalist countries decreased by 12.5% ​​in 1948-49, continuing to decline in subsequent years.

In the coal industry, incomplete work week with corresponding reduction wages workers. In 1949, many US coal mines operated only 3 days a week. Production in other sectors of the mining industry also declined. Thus, iron ore production in the USA decreased in 1949 compared to 1948 by 16%. 3rd stage of the general crisis capitalism was marked by the collapse of the colonial system and the struggle of developing countries to establish control over their own natural resources. Under the current conditions, industrialized capitalist states were forced to change their tactics for exporting raw materials and fuel from developing countries. They switched to forms of economic coercion, in particular through an extensive network of monopolistic associations of enterprises and their affiliates operating in developing countries.

Multinational corporations (MNCs) occupied a special place in this network, creating a kind of “non-colonial empire” of international capital. They practically control the extraction, processing and especially international trade of many important minerals. American and Anglo-Dutch companies occupy key positions in MNCs; Japanese organizations have also become major depositors in the mining industry. As the structure of American, Japanese and British investments in developing countries shows, these are directed primarily to oil production, non-ferrous metal ores, iron or in the development of those types of minerals whose reserves are limited. This creates the preconditions for obtaining high profits, especially in the case of predatory exploitation of concession areas without taking into account the natural capabilities of the deposits, as well as an extremely low level of royalties in favor of the true owners of the subsoil.

Foreign firms interested in the export of certain types of raw materials and fuel do their best to restrain the industrial growth of developing countries. For many years they have pursued a policy aimed at breaking the unified technological process production of ferrous and non-ferrous metals, petroleum products, chemical goods, concentrating production enterprises finished products in developed consuming countries. The entry of developing countries on the path of creating the foundations of an independent economy, expanding the position of the public sector and limiting the scope of foreign capital as a result of nationalization and other measures enable these countries to more decisively advocate for the establishment of a fair level of prices for minerals extracted in their territories and for the revision of the terms of agreements with monopolists about exploitation natural resources. An example would be the activity oil exporting countries, united in the company of black gold exporting countries, which in the early 70s. carried out a successful attack on the positions of the oil cartel. The effectiveness of other organizations uniting commodity exporters from developing countries is also increasing, in particular CIPEC (Intergovernmental Council of Exporting Countries cupruma) and MABS (International Bauxite Mining Countries).

The aggravation of the energy crisis, the main culprits of which were the oil monopolists, who sought through deliberate restrictions supplies black gold to increase their profits demonstrated the instability of the development of leading capitalist countries, their inability to solve the most important problems of international economic relations. In their desire to replace sources of raw materials that are out of control in the territories of developing countries, as well as to exert political and economic pressure on these states, large monopolistic trust USA, European Economic Community countries and Japan at the present stage they are relying on the development of the fuel industry in Canada, Australia, South Africa, Greenland, Alaska, Northern Scandinavia, the North Sea, as well as in developing countries with the smallest scope of the national liberation movement, i.e. in areas with a “politically stable climate” in which they can count on a guarantee of investment security. Focus on accelerated development of mining in Canada and Australia led to the creation of a powerful mining industry in them, which increased the share of these countries in the total cost mining production of the capitalist world from 4.5% in 1950 to 7.1% in 1982, i.e. more than 1.5 times. At the same time, the share of these states in the extraction of mineral resources, excluding energy raw materials, was in the early 80s. about 20%. The modern structure of products of the global mining industry is characterized by a clear predominance (in value terms) of fuel and energy raw materials.

Cumulative price products of the mining industry (without socialist countries) were distributed among individual types of mineral raw materials as follows (%): energy raw materials - 61.64, 13.44, coal 10.43, lignite 0.64, uranium 0.59; ores of ferrous and alloying metals - iron 2.18, molybdenum 0.27, manganese 0.16, tungsten 0.13, chromium 0.1; non-ferrous metal ores - copper 2.8, gold 1.78, tin 1.19, silver 0.43, lead 0.42, zinc 0.42, bauxite 0.42, nickel 0.32, platinum 0.18; non-metallic industrial raw materials - phosphorites 0.67, table salt 0.52, potassium salt 0.4, asbestos 0.28, sulfur 0.27, kaolin 0.19, boron ore 0.12, talc 0.1, pyrites 0.05; precious stones - diamonds 0.47. The listed types account for about 98-99% of the total cost of mined mineral raw materials, and the rest - only 1-2%, although many of them are of no small importance for the development of scientific and technological progress and new fields of technology. The cost of mineral raw materials extracted in 1982 increased 20 times compared to 1950 at current prices, 8 times at constant prices (1978), and the volume of production (t) increased in the period under consideration period almost 4 times. Thus, the average annual growth rate was determined to be 4.5%, and in 1973-82 there was a decrease in this indicator to 1.7% per year. The extraction of the main types of mineral raw materials in 1950-78 is characterized by high growth rates of this indicator for non-metallic raw materials (% per year, in brackets - in 1973-78) - non-metallic minerals 5.3 (3.6), mineral energy raw materials 4.9 (2), metal ores 3.4 (0.1).

By the end of the 70s. the share of industrialized capitalist countries in the total value of mining products in the capitalist world was about 45%; their share in the extraction of energy raw materials in 1978 (%) was 41, incl. coal 94, lignite 96, Natural gas 82, uranium 81, black gold 22. They accounted for about 63% of the production of metal ores, including over 99% of platinum group metals, 90-95% of ilmenite, rutile, zircon, gold, about 80% of manganese ore, about 70% lead, zinc, iron ores, 45-50% chromites, bauxites, tungsten ores, cuprum, silver, about 70% non-metallic raw materials. Developing countries are characterized by a high share in ore mining tin(90%), black gold (about 80%), diamonds (about 70%), a number of non-ferrous and rare metals. The volume of production of the mining industry of these countries in 1950-78 (t) increased 7 times, and its value (billion dollars) - 14.5 times; for energy raw materials the increase was 8 and 19.5 times, respectively, and for other minerals - 2.5 and 3.8 times.

The development of existing trends in the mining industry of the world (excluding socialist countries) led to the fact that by the end of the 70s. the main countries producing the mineral raw materials steel (in brackets the value of mining industry products in 1978, billion. Dollars): USA (73.9), (39.3), Iran(25.1), (14.7), England (12.3), Iraq (12), Libya (10.7), Republic of Venezuela (10.4), Germany (10), Nigeria (9.9) , Kuwait (9.8), Indonesia (9), South Africa (8.1), (7.4), Australia(7.3), UAE (7.2), Algeria (6.8), (6.4), France(2.8), (2.7). The leading producers of mineral energy raw materials include states in which production in 1978 amounted to billions. Dollars(share in world capitalist production in parentheses, %): USA 65.1 (22.6), Saudi Arabia 39,3 (13,6), Iran 24.9 (8.6), Britain 12 (4.2), Iraq 12 (4.2), Libya 10.7 (3.7), Canada 10.3 (3.5), Republic of Venezuela 10.2 (3.5), Nigeria 9.9 (3.4), Kuwait 9.8 (3.43), Germany 9.4 (3.3), Indonesia 8.6 (3), UAE 7, 2 (2.5), Algeria 6.7 (2.3). Among the countries that are large producers of non-energy minerals, the first 15 places (in the same indicators) are occupied by: USA 8.8 (20), South Africa 6.8 (15.4), Canada 4.4 (10), 3.1 (7), Republic of Chile 1,5 (3,4), 1,4 (3,2), Republic of Peru 1 (2,3), 1 (2,3), Mexico 0.9 (2), Zaire 0.9 (2), France 0.8 (1.8), Zambia 0.7 (1.6), Malaysia 0.7 (1.6), Morocco 0.6 (1.4), Germany 0.6 (1.4).

The uneven distribution of mining industries across individual continents and regions has led to varying degrees of self-sufficiency in mineral raw materials and fuel, as well as their processed products, and thus led to the development of active international trade in this area. Thus, the group of industrialized capitalist countries as a whole by the beginning of the 80s. ensured the satisfaction of its needs (%) in energy and other minerals by approximately 60; while the corresponding figures for Australia were 108 and 162, for South Africa 91 and 100, for the USA and Canada 78 and 78, for Japan 6 and 6, for Western European countries 41 and 40. Developing countries extract mineral raw materials several times more than they consume: on average, for this group of states, the degree of self-sufficiency in energy raw materials, metal ores, and others was in the late 70s. (%): 294, 381 and 299, incl. for African countries 556, 878 and 589; Asia 396, 239 and 385; Latin America 112, 402 and 133.V international trade Mineral energy raw materials have the highest share of mining products (about 92% of the total value in 1981); metal ores and other raw materials account for 8%. The largest exporters of mineral raw materials in the world market are developing countries, which in 1981 accounted for 75% of world exports of these products (excluding socialist countries), including 77% of energy minerals.

Mineral raw materials rank 1st in terms of tonnage in world trade. Over 150 million tons of coal are exported annually (excluding socialist countries) (volume exporting constantly growing), about 300 million tons of iron ores, tens of millions of tons of bauxite and alumina, phosphate raw materials, several million tons of manganese ores, chromites and other metal raw materials, and the total annual volume exporting approaching 2.5 billion tons. Significant volumes of transportation of raw materials and fuel between countries required the creation of an appropriate cargo sea fleet, and primarily a tanker fleet, the tonnage of which in 1981 was 346 million tons deadweight. In the 70s the need for supertankers with a displacement from 150-200 thousand tons to 500 thousand tons or more has increased. In the early 80s. increased demand for ships (with a displacement of 60-80 thousand tons) for combined transportation of black gold, ore and other general cargo (ore-bulk-oil) - oil tankers. The carrying capacity of special vessels intended for transporting ore (primarily iron) has increased to 180-250 thousand tons. The creation of a large-capacity fleet and a large volume of transportation of mineral raw materials and fuel led to the construction of large specialized oil (several tens and hundreds of million tons) and ore ports (20-80 million tons). Along with the development of maritime transport, the role of pipeline transport, intended for the intracontinental supply of raw materials within one country and between countries, has sharply increased.

In terms of production scale, the mining industry of the capitalist world is one of the largest industries. Thus, in capitalist and developing countries, about 90% of the production of 22 types of essential minerals, excluding fuel and energy raw materials, comes from enterprises, processing over 150 thousand tons of ore annually. In the capitalist world in 1984, there were 668 large mines (including 193 with a capacity of 150-300 thousand tons, 125 - 300-500 thousand tons, 150 - 500-1000 thousand tons, 132 - 1-3 million tons, 68 - over 3 million tons) and 525 quarries (including 68 with a capacity of 150-300 thousand tons, 60 - 300-500 thousand tons, 85 - 500-1000 thousand tons, 118 - 1-3 million tons, 194 - over 3 million tons). Largest number of largest mining companies enterprises concentrated in Canada, USA, South Africa - about 50% of all mines and quarries with an annual capacity of 1-3 million tons or more.

In the 80s the development of the mining industry is associated with a predominant transition to open development deposits of solid minerals. Of the 1,200 largest mining enterprises in the world, about 530 mine ore deposits using open pit methods, and about 670 mine mines underground.

Continuously increasing need for minerals raw materials leads to the use of increasingly poor raw materials, an increase in the volume of processed rock mass, the depths of mountain works and others that require improvement of methods of extraction and processing technology of raw materials. In the oil mining industry, the depth of existing oil productive wells (total number of about 600 thousand) has increased to 5-6 km or more. In the USA alone, more than 10 thousand are walked annually exploration wells with a total length of 18-20 million meters. At the same time, hundreds of wells are drilled to a depth of over 5 km, and some - up to 8-9 km; the cost of drilling one deep or ultra-deep well is several million dollars. The scale of construction of special drilling platforms and vessels for the production of geological exploration is growing. works and offshore oil and gas production. In order to increase the oil recovery factor, secondary and, in some cases, tertiary methods of oil extraction are widely used. Modern processes primary processing or enrichment of mineral metal and non-metallic raw materials made it possible to raise the level of processing enterprises to highly efficient production of commercial ore or concentrate. Every year the scale of active industrialization of the mining industry is expanding. The nature of the development of the mining industry and its connections with other spheres of the world economy affect the constant growth of mining production costs, the intensity of their increase, on the one hand, is restrained by the development of technology and technology, on the other hand, it is enhanced by the tightening of protection measures environment, increasingly limited new areas for searching for mineral deposits, increasing energy intensity of production and energy costs. In this regard, the progress of the mining industry is mainly associated with both the further development of traditional methods of extraction and primary processing of raw materials, which allow increasing the scale and degree of extraction, and with the introduction of fundamentally new technological schemes and technical solutions, for example, the creation of complexes for the development of ferromanganese nodules on the ocean floor, relatively inexpensive methods for extracting metals from sea waters, etc.

Mining industry is

Mining industry is

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Vladimir Kondratyev

Vladimir Borisovich Kondratiev – Head of the Center for Industrial and Investment Research at the Institute of World Economy and International Relations of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Doctor of Economics.

The next article in a series of materials on the state of individual sectors of the economy in Russia and the world is dedicated to the mining industry. The role of this industry in the global economy has increased significantly over the past 10–15 years. By capitalization level largest companies it ranks 5th, behind only the banking sector, oil and gas, pharmaceutical and computer industries. How does Russia, the largest mining country with the richest subsoil resources, take advantage of this?

The mining industry is a complex of industries involved in the extraction and beneficiation of minerals - such as base metals (polymetallic ores, copper, lead, aluminum, etc.), precious metals, iron ore, uranium ores, coal, diamonds, limestone, potassium feldspar (potash), graphite, asbestos, mica, clays and other mineral building materials. In a broad sense, the mining industry sometimes also includes oil and gas production, although most often they are separated into a separate industry. Development is carried out both open (quarries) and underground (mines).

The mining industry is one of the leading sectors of the global economy. According to the British newspaper Financial Times, this industry ranked 5th in the world in terms of capitalization of the largest companies after the banking sector, oil and gas, pharmaceutical and computer industries (Table 1).

Table 1. Capitalization levels of leading sectors of the global economy in 2011

CalculatedBy

For comparison, in 2005, the mining industry ranked only 24th among global sectors of the world economy in terms of capitalization. Leading companies in this sector have significantly strengthened their positions in global markets over the past period. Thus, the Brazilian corporation Vale in the list of the 500 largest companies in the world moved from 155th place in 2005 to 23rd in 2011, the Rio Tinto company - from 117th to 31st, and BHP Billiton - from 41st. th to 6th (Table 2).

Table 2. Leading mining companies in the world in 2011

CalculatedByFT Global 500, 2011 sector ranks.

No country in the world has a complete set of all types of mineral raw materials.

Rice. 1. Distribution of major mining countries by number of types of mineral products mined

Source:InfoMine. MiningIntelligenceandTechnology.

There are only 10 countries in the world that mine over 30 types of minerals. From Fig. 1 shows that the main mining powers of the world are Russia, China, USA, Australia, Brazil, India, South Africa, Canada.

China remains the main consumer of the global mining industry (Fig. 2).

Rice. 2. Main regions - consumers of mining products in 2011 (share in total revenue, %)

CalculatedByofglobaltrendsintheminingindustry. P.W.C. 2011.

In percentage terms, China's share of revenue in 2011 alone increased from 25% to 27%, while the share of North America decreased, which indicates a redistribution of shares in industry revenue in favor of developing economies.

However, some highly developed countries (for example, the USA, Canada, Australia) have large reserves of minerals, often even being world leaders in the extraction of certain types of raw materials. Nevertheless, in developed countries the share of extractive industries in all industrial production averages 2%, and in developing countries it is 14%. The relative role of the mining industry in the economies of different countries can be judged from the data in Table. 3.

Table 3. The role of the mining industry in the economies of a number of countries around the world at current prices, %

CalculatedBy: Statistical Yearbook. Fifty third issue, October 2009, New York 2009.

In Europe, only Bulgaria, Holland, Denmark and Norway have relatively developed mining industries. Deposits of iron ore, lead, zinc and copper are being developed in Bulgaria. The mining industry of Holland, Denmark and especially Norway is primarily associated with oil and gas fields and is not discussed here.

The top five countries with the most developed mining industries are Canada, South Africa, Australia, Russia and Chile. At the same time, the role of the industry in the economies of these and a number of other countries has increased significantly due to rising commodity prices over the past 10–15 years. Thus, the share of the mining industry in the total volumes of industrial production for 1997–2008. increased (at current prices) in Brazil from 4 to 14%, USA - from 5 to 13%, Canada - from 18 to 31%, Australia - from 25 to 44%, Russia - from 28 to 53%, Chile - from 26 up to 59%.

Among the diverse products of the mining industry, the most important are coal, copper and iron ore, which together accounted for 64% of all global mining industry revenues in 2011 (60% in 2010) (Figure 3).

Fig 3. Share various goods mining industry of the world in total industry revenue, 2011, %

CalculatedBy: Mine 2011.The game has changed. Reviewofglobaltrendsintheminingindustry. P.W.C. 2011.

Given in table. 4 data indicate an increase in production volumes for all types of raw materials; a decrease was observed only in the production of copper and diamonds.

Table 4. Volume of production of the most important commodities of the global mining industry in 2011

CalculatedBy: Mine 2011.The game has changed. Review of global trends in the mining industry. P.W.C. 2011.

The largest increase in volumes was observed in the potash sector, a dramatic change from the decline in production in 2009. Iron ore production volumes have returned to 2008 levels. Iron ore companies are expanding production and have already resumed operations at full capacity. In 2011, demand for ore increased steadily; enterprises commissioned large production capacities, which resulted in a 16% increase in production volumes.

Copper production has declined due to factors such as development of lower quality ore deposits and strikes in Chile and Peru. Increased demand for bauxite has led Rio Tinto to increase production at its Weipa mine in Australia.

Overall, the output of the global mining industry increased by 5% in 2011, which is higher than the rate of global economic growth, but lower than the growth rate of the economies of developing countries, which provided the main growth in demand for commodities. The increase in production, primarily of iron ore, was achieved through capacity expansion.

Below are statistics on production, exports and imports of the main commodities of the global mining industry - coal, copper and iron ore.

Table 5. Coal production by the leading countries of the world in 1998–2008, million tons

CalculatedBy: 2008 Industrial Commodity Statistics Yearbook. Vol. 1. PhysicalQuantityData. UN, N. Y. 2011.

From the table Figure 5 shows that the leading positions in coal production in the world were occupied by China, the USA and India. At the same time, in the United States, production decreased in 1998–2008, while in India and China, on the contrary, it increased significantly (an increase of almost 2 times). In Russia, coal production, after stagnation in the 1990s, also had a clear upward trend. Nevertheless, our country ranks 6th in the world in this indicator, also behind Australia and South Africa.

Rice. 4. Leading coal exporting countries in 2008, %

Source. IITradebyCommodity. U. N. N. Y. 2010.

Taking advantage of its dominant position in coal mining, China is also the leader in coal exports (41.7% of global volumes), far ahead of second-place Indonesia (11%), the United States and Russia (8.5 and 8.5%, respectively). 2%). It is noteworthy that India, the third country in terms of production volumes, is not among the exporters of coal, using it exclusively for domestic needs, as a main energy resource and in the metallurgical industry.

Rice. 5. Leading coal importing countries in 2008,%

Source: 2008 International Trade Statistics Yearbook. Vol. IITradebyCommodity. U. N. N. Y. 2010.

The main importers on the global coal market are Japan and South Korea (Fig. 5). Both countries have a powerful metallurgical industry, but are almost completely deprived of their own natural base for its development.

Table 6. Copper ore production by the leading countries of the world in 1998–2008, thousand tons

CalculatedBy: 2008 Industrial Commodity Statistics Yearbook. Vol. 1. Physical Quantity Data. UN, N. Y. 2011.

As can be seen from table. 6, Chile and Indonesia occupy leading positions in the production of copper ore. Moreover, in these countries there is an intensive increase in production: in Chile its volumes have doubled over ten years, and in Indonesia they have tripled. In the United States, which is also one of the largest producers of copper ore, production has been declining. But it increased rapidly in India (3 times over 1998–2008) and especially in Brazil (more than 10 times over the same period).

Fig.6. Leading copper exporting countries in 2008, %

Source: 2008 International Trade Statistics Yearbook. Vol. IITradebyCommodity. U. N. N. Y. 2010.

Chile dominates copper ore exports (Figure 6). Other countries lag significantly behind in this indicator. The USA accounts for 4.7% of world exports, Brazil – 3.2%. Russia is not included in this list because it is a net importer of copper ore. The world's main consumers of copper are China (26.5%) and Japan (26.3%), which account for more than half of the world's imports of this product (Fig. 7).

Rice. 7. Leading copper importing countries in 2008, %

Source: 2008 International Trade Statistics Yearbook. Vol. IITradebyCommodity. U. N. N. Y. 2010.

An important raw material is iron ore, the production of which has been growing rapidly in recent years in almost all leading countries of the world. In Brazil it increased between 1998 and 2008. almost four times, in China, India and Australia – three times. Production is also growing in Russia, although not at such a high rate. But in South Africa, the USA and Canada this sector is stagnating (Table 7).

Table 7. Iron ore production by the leading countries of the world in 1998-2008, million tons

CalculatedBy: 2008 Industrial Commodity Statistics Yearbook. Vol. 1. Physical Quantity Data. UN, N.Y. 2011.

Rice. 8. Leading iron ore exporting countries in 2008, %

Source: 2008 International Trade Statistics Yearbook. Vol. II Trade by Commodity. U.N. N.Y. 2010.

Australia remains the leading supplier of iron ore to other countries (almost 40% of global exports). Brazil (25%) and India (9%) also actively export iron ore. The role of other countries (including Russia) in iron ore exports is insignificant.

Rice. 9. Leading iron ore importing countries in 2008, %

Source: 2008 International Trade Statistics Yearbook. Vol. IITradebyCommodity. U. N. N. Y. 2010.

Significant volumes of iron ore are traditionally imported by Japan and South Korea, which do not have a sufficient resource base for their metallurgical industry. However, China dominates here, accounting for almost 60% of global iron ore imports.

A new era is dawning in the mining industry. Demand continues to be supported by strong growth in emerging markets. Supply is increasingly constrained as greenfield development projects become more complex and work is now carried out in more remote locations. Development of deposits with lower quality reserves and a lack of skilled workers lead to higher costs.

To meet demand, leading companies in the industry have announced plans to implement capital investment programs worth $300 billion, of which $120 billion is planned for 2012—more than double the total capital investment in 2010.

New investments are increasingly directed to projects implemented in emerging markets. Funds are invested by consumers of mining products and states interested in ensuring uninterrupted supply of raw materials. Over the past four years, the average total income shareholder value (TSR) of industry leaders operating in emerging markets was more than double that of companies from traditional mining countries. CEOs say they continue to have faith in emerging markets, especially China's continued growth and the country's ability to meet its 12th Five-Year Plan growth rate of 7% or higher.

While consumer goods sectors dependent on demand from developed economies struggled to regain their footing, mining companies continued to outperform the broader market. Demand for resources was supported by strong economic growth in developing countries, including almost 10% annual economic growth in China.

In 2010–2011 The recovery of market capitalization continued in the mining industry. Many market participants have regained ground lost during the global financial crisis and have even surpassed levels achieved at the end of 2007. The market capitalization of the top 40 mining companies grew by 26%. It has become more difficult to get into their number: the capitalization indicator required to be included in the list increased from $6.5 billion in 2009 to $11.0 billion in 2010.

In 2010–2011 There has been a sharp separation of the three largest mining companies (BHP Billiton, Vale and Rio Tinto) from the rest of the industry. The market capitalization of Rio Tinto, which ranks third on the list, is 1.5 times that of the next-ranking company, China Shenhua, which lost 25% of its value in 2010. BHP Billiton, at the top of the list, led by a wide margin. The main factors that determined the increase in the value of these companies were rising prices for raw materials and an increase in production volumes.

Thanks to high demand, 2011 was an extremely positive year for the industry. Combined revenue for the top 40 mining companies increased by 32%, adjusted profitability increased by 72%, and net profit increased by 156%.

As the market recovers, mining companies are trying to demonstrate that they made the right decisions during the crisis and are able to take advantage of the opportunities presented by a growing market. Total shareholder return (TSR) performance over four years, including 2010, confirms that the mining business generates impressive (if unevenly delivered) returns.

Rice. 10. Growth in total shareholder income of the world's nine largest mining companies for the period 2007–2011, %

Source:BloombergandP.W.C.analysis; corporate statistics data.

In 2010–2011 Several market participants have been able to take advantage of volatility in the commodities market, especially copper and silver, allowing companies like Silver Wheaton to post an impressive 160% year-over-year growth in total shareholder returns.

There has been enormous interest in investing in “minor” metal, which is usually considered a by-product. This once again confirms that in recent years commodity markets have begun to develop even more dynamically.

It is obvious to specialists and experts that exchange-traded funds (ETFs), formed five years ago, have attracted significant interest in this market. Over the period from 2006 to 2011, the largest of these funds, iShares Silver Trust, increased its silver reserves from just over 600 tons to 11 thousand tons.

The increase in the price of silver was largely due to speculative transactions. However, it should be noted that recently new areas for using silver on an industrial scale have emerged: for example, silver is used in solar panels, the production of which is constantly increasing.

Sovereign investment funds have invested in resource sectors before. Several large funds, especially from the United United Arab Emirates, Norway and Kuwait, were created with “oil” money and boldly invested it. However, in the past, the investments of these funds were directed mainly to the oil sector. A new trend has become the investment of serious funds in the mining industry by non-resource state investment funds.

Some mining companies viewed sovereign wealth funds as a stable source of capital, available over longer periods of time than most other sources of finance, and as strategic business partners. Indicative from this point of view are the investments of the China Investment Corporation (CIC) in the Canadian mining company Teck Resources and the Indonesian company Bumi Resources, which sell their products mainly in the Chinese market.

As the geographic scope of mining companies' operations expands and mining operations often take place in regions with weak democratic institutions and immature or developing markets and governance systems, public investment funds can be seen as playing a leading role in ensuring a stable supply of raw materials.

The dynamics of development of the global mining industry over the past decade are impressive (Table 8).

Table 8. Key indicators of the dynamics of the global mining industry in 2002–2010.

CalculatedBy 2011.

Thus, the total revenue of industry companies in 2010 reached $435 billion - the highest level in all previous years; while the increase compared to 2009 was 34%. This result was achieved due to rising commodity prices and a renewed increase in production volumes. It signals the recovery of the mining industry following the global financial crisis.

Net profit increased in 2010 compared to 2009 by 124%, and compared to 2002 - almost 20 times, and for the first time exceeded $100 billion. However, the net profit rate for 2010, amounting to 25%, was slightly lower than the same figure achieved in 2007 and the record net profit rate in 2006 (27%). However, this figure was 4 times higher than in 2002.

Based on these results, it can be concluded that there have been significant shifts in the industry's cost base. During the years of the financial crisis, costs in the mining industry remained high. The price of basic input resources is negatively affected by rising prices for electricity and a constant increase in costs for capital construction. There is also a high demand for labor resources. With many previously announced major expansion projects now underway and some regions experiencing serious skills shortages, the cost of attracting and retaining talent is likely to increase.

In recent years, processes in the global mining industry have noticeably intensified vertical integration. Metallurgical companies and end consumers are seeking to acquire mining assets, and mining companies are interested in acquiring infrastructure facilities.

This trend was formed as a result of increasing global demand for metal and the desire to ensure stability in the supply of resources, the depletion of which is occurring at an increasingly rapid rate. Metallurgical companies are interested in guaranteeing the continuity of their own production, including through reliable supplies of raw materials from alternative sources. Other important goals include being able to more closely control the cost of raw materials used in production and ensuring future growth.

This strategy is aimed at reducing the market dominance of large iron ore producers and reducing dependence on external suppliers. The metallurgical company ArcelorMittal is significantly increasing the capacity of its own iron ore and coal mining divisions. Many other large steel companies have also made official statements about their intention to increase self-sufficiency in iron ore and coking coal. Thus, Taiwanese China Steel plans to increase the level of self-sufficiency in iron ore from 2% to 30% by 2015. South Korean POSCO aims to achieve 50% self-sufficiency in raw materials by 2014. Indian Tata Steel intends to independently supply 100% of its production with iron ore and 50% with coking coal.

More recently, end users of mining products have also engaged in vertical integration through the acquisition of exploration and production assets. Many power producers, including China's Huadian and India's Tata Power, have bought large coal mining assets. Among zinc producers, the Belgian-Swiss Nyrstar distinguished itself: in 2011, it bought the Canadian company Farallon Mining, as a result of which its level of self-sufficiency in zinc concentrate increased to 31%.

It is highly likely that this trend will spread to trading companies, which are increasingly inclined to create vertically integrated holdings. For example, the well-known company Glencore is preparing for a possible IPO, and the China Minmetals corporation bought the assets of the Canadian mining company Oz Minerals and recently attempted to acquire the Australian company Equinox Minerals.

Companies are also looking at other ways to integrate assets, such as combining strategic investments with long-term fixed-price offtake agreements or partnership agreements to reduce the risk associated with integration. At the same time, companies acquired a minority stake or independently provided financing for large projects at the initial stage. Examples include China Railway's 12.5% ​​stake in South Africa's African Minerals, coupled with a 20-year fixed-price offtake agreement, and Japanese steelmaker JFE Steel's 20% investment in the Australian Byerwen coal mine. Coal, backed by a similar long-term agreement.

Brazilian mining corporation Vale has acquired a 27% stake in the steel assets of the German company ThyssenKrupp CSA in Brazil. In parallel with investments in share capital An exclusive agreement was signed for the supply of iron ore.

Although mining companies have pursued various vertical integration strategies, they have generally been reluctant to increase their presence in the metal production or sales segments. They are primarily interested in infrastructure assets, and their motivation largely coincides with that described above – ensuring reliable access to key production and transport resources. For example, Vale is currently adding several vessels to its bulk iron ore fleet.

In the metals industry, growing supply shortages of raw materials and increasing price volatility will continue to encourage metals companies to acquire exploration and production assets, either through direct participation in and control of enterprises, or through minority ownership in combination with the signing of a strategic agreement to guarantee the purchase of raw materials at fixed rates. prices.

Higher commodity prices became one of the factors that led to an increase in profit indicators and profit margins of mining companies in 2011 (Table 9).

Table 9. Dynamics of average prices for major commodities in the global mining industry

CalculatedBy: Mine 2011. The game has changed. Review of global trends in mining industry. P.W.C. 2011.

The average price of copper, gold, coal and iron ore reached historical highs in 2011, and the average price of aluminum did not exceed the level recorded before the global financial crisis.

Iron ore prices hit record highs: the average price in 2011 increased to $210 per ton as demand for steel recovered in the market and supply began to lag behind demand.

The price of copper also reached a record level: at the end of 2011, the spot price reached $9,600 per ton, and the average price increased by 46%. The reasons are high demand for copper, primarily from China, and a shortage of supply due to overlapping factors: labor strikes, in particular in Chile and Peru, and a decrease in the quality of mined ore. In the first quarter of 2012, the price of copper continued to rise, this trend is mainly explained by the influence of positive economic indicators of the world's main consumer, China, and expectations for the recovery of the American economy. As was the case last year, copper's fundamentals remain strong. The need to rebuild Japan's devastated infrastructure, coupled with economic growth in developing countries, will keep demand strong in the second half of 2012. Copper market supply remains very limited.

The price of gold has been steadily rising since 2003 (when the average price was $364 per ounce) and at the end of 2011 reached a historical high of $1,421.

An analysis of the activities of the world's largest mining companies indicates that the companies believe in the successful implementation of their projects. Investments aimed at realizing organic growth opportunities account for 85% of net cash investment flows.

The mergers and acquisitions market is waking up. At the same time, despite the increase in the number of transactions, their total value is still significantly below the record level of 2007, because it is difficult to conclude ultra-large transactions.

In 2010, in some mining sectors, the life of deposits increased, but, as our analysis shows, when converted into equivalent units (the price of one ton of copper is taken as an equivalent unit), for the industry as a whole, the remaining life of deposits decreased by two years and was 35 years old. This indicates that the increase in inventories was not as significant as the increase in production volume during the year (Table 10).

Table 10. Reserves of basic minerals and their changes in the world

CalculatedBy: Mine 2011. The game has changed. Review of global trends in mining industry. P.W.C. 2011.

Thanks to significant increases in gold prices, higher-cost mines have become economically viable. In addition, the result of successful geological exploration work carried out during the year was a further increase in gold reserves. Examples include the development of the Oyu Tolgoi deposit in Mongolia, the South American and Canadian projects of the Canadian mining company Goldcorp, as well as the projects of the Canadian company Kinross in Mauritania and South America.

The increase in copper prices in long-term forecast assumptions caused a uniform increase in the value of copper reserves among all its producers included in the list of the largest mining companies in the world. The increase in copper reserves was mainly due to the large development project of the Oyu Tolgoi deposit in Mongolia, implemented by Ivanhoe and Rio Tinto, as well as the revaluation of reserves of deposits in North America owned by the US company Freeport McMoRan. During the period of decline in production, new reserves significantly covered the retired copper reserves, which led to an increase in the life of the deposits by eight years compared to 2009.

Zinc and nickel reserves remained approximately at the same level as in 2009. The life of zinc deposits was reduced from 13 years (at the end of 2009) to 12 years, and nickel deposits - to 21 years. Several large zinc producers, for example, the English Vedanta Resources plc and the Chinese Minmetals Resources Limited, were not included in the list of the largest mining companies.

Huge investment in expanding iron ore mining operations bore fruit in 2010, with reserves increasing significantly, resulting in an overall increase in the remaining mine life to 22 years. A significant increase in reserves was noted by all major participants in the iron ore market.

With global steel production up 17% in 2010 (according to the World Steel Association), demand for coking coal was high and its production growth kept pace with the increase in steel production. The most significant increase in reserves was recorded by Anglo American as part of its Grosvenor project in Australia.

Thermal coal production was carried out at a stable pace, the volumes of new reserves covered the production volumes. Increases in reserves were reported by BHP Billiton (partly as a result of the restatement of reserves at the Mount Arthur coal mine in Australia), Xstrata (due to the reclassification of the Rolleston West resource and the approval of the Bulga project in Australia) and China Shenhua (due to additional drilling at the Shendong coal mines). .

Bauxite production in 2010 remained virtually unchanged compared to 2009. However, due to changes in Brazilian legislation, BHP Billiton and Rio Tinto reduced their bauxite ore reserves. Some resources have been withdrawn from the reserves category until new licenses are obtained. This reflects the increasingly challenging environment in which mining companies have to operate in many countries due to increased government scrutiny of the mining industry.

The largest mining companies continued to focus on increasing production from existing mines and mines. Since some companies still had limited financial resources, exploration costs remained at 50% of previous volumes. However, many have already announced plans to increase exploration spending in 2012 and 2013. However, the largest mining companies account for less than half of total spending, indicating the continued role of small and medium-sized companies in exploration work. The main spending in 2011 was in the gold and base metals sectors, which account for nearly 85% of total exploration spending, according to Metals Economics Group (Figure 11).

Rice. eleven. Structure of geological exploration costs by type of commodity in 2010

1 – gold; 2 – base metals; 3 – diamonds; 4 – platinum group metals; 5 – others.

Calculated by: World trends in geological exploration. Metals Economics Group, 2011.

Unprecedentedly high gold prices in 2011 pushed gold exploration companies to increase their total budgets by $1.9 billion. As a result, planned exploration expenditures in the sector increased to $5.4 billion, and their share of the total budget increased to 51% - for the first time since 1999, gold accounted for more than half of total exploration costs.

Russia

Historically, Russia is the largest mining country with the most significant subsoil resources. Even after the reduction of the mineral resource base as a result of the collapse of the USSR, it occupies a leading position in reserves of almost all major types of minerals. However, the quality of the vast majority of these reserves is lower than that of competing producing countries. Thus, while occupying first place in the world in terms of total iron ore reserves, we have less than 9% of them rich, with an iron content of about 60%. While in Australia, Brazil and China such ores account for up to two-thirds of their active reserves. In terms of the availability of copper raw materials, Russia ranks third in the world, but the rich ores have already been largely mined. Occupying, respectively, first and third places in terms of reserves of zinc and lead ores, our country is two to three times inferior in quality to Australia and Canada. Our world's largest reserves of tin ore are two to three times lower in quality than Brazilian, Indonesian and Malaysian deposits. Russia has the largest reserves of titanium ores, but they are characterized by extremely low metal content, which is why the country is an importer of titanium. Ranking sixth in terms of bauxite reserves, we are significantly inferior in quality to Australia, Guinea and Greece. The metal content in Russian tungsten ores is more than two times lower than in China, and in molybdenum ores it is three to four times lower than in the United States. The situation is similar for many other minerals.

Against this background, large Norilsk deposits of polymetallic ores of high quality by modern standards, containing nickel, copper, cobalt, gold, silver, and platinum group metals, stand out favorably. Based on the Norilsk deposits, more than 20% of the world's raw materials for the production of nickel, more than 10% of cobalt, more than 3% of copper, a significant part of platinum, palladium, tellurium and other valuable products are mined. Industrial reserves of Norilsk ores, according to existing estimates, should last for about another three decades.

It should be noted that the Yakut and Arkhangelsk diamond deposits are unique in terms of reserves and quality. But here too there is a problem of deterioration in the structure of industrial reserves.

In general, the position of our country in modern mining production is characterized by the following indicators. Russia is the absolute leader among 166 mining states in terms of the number of mineral products produced - 48 items (Fig. 1). At the same time, the vast majority of countries mine no more than 10 types of minerals. Overall, the domestic mining industry's share of global production is 9.7%. According to this indicator, Russia is in third place after the United States and China.

If we consider the share of our country in the global production of certain types of mineral products (ferrous, non-ferrous ores, precious metals, non-metallic minerals), then here too Russia generally occupies places no lower than 5th. Consequently, we can state a fairly significant position of Russian mining production in the modern world.

Russia has all the capabilities (primarily raw materials) to ensure the highest level of its economy. But, unlike Western European and some other countries (say, Japan), characterized by high consumption of mineral products and, accordingly, high level economy with the virtual absence of its own mineral resource base, our country has relatively low rates of its own consumption of mineral products. Most of them are exported to other countries. We emphasize that the amount of mineral raw materials used within the country is an indicator of the development of processing and high-tech industries that meet the needs of society and characterize its well-being.

At the same time, it is quite realistic that in the near future there will be a decline in the positions achieved by Russian mining industries. The main reasons for this are the deterioration of the mineral resource base and the growing inadequacy of mining technologies to the changing state of mineral deposits.

The fact is that the country is exploiting mineral reserves explored back in the Soviet period. Since 1996, the state has not carried out large-scale geological prospecting for new mineral deposits, and subsoil users are in no hurry to invest the necessary funds in geological exploration. The resulting gap between production volumes and reserve replacement has already reached alarming proportions.

Moreover, there is a process of widespread revision of existing conditions with the removal from industrial reserves of areas that are less profitable for miners. This contributes to an even greater depletion of the country's mineral resource base. By the way, the same process is typical for our oil industry.

The share of the mining industry in Russia's exports is very significant (Table 11).

Table 11. The role of the mining industry in Russian exports, million dollars.

Calculated based on data from Rosstat and the Customs Service of the Russian Federation.

Bauxite production in Russia is at the level of 5–6 million tons per year. Alumina production has decreased in recent years to 2.8–2.9 million tons per year. The low quality of mined bauxite and the insufficient amount of alumina dictate the need for its massive import by Russian aluminum smelters (in the amount of 4.7–5.3 million tons per year). Kazakhstan (Pavlodar plant) and Ukraine (Nikolaev alumina plant) remain the traditional suppliers of alumina to Russia.

Until recently, the production of chrome ores in Russia did not exceed 150 thousand tons per year, but in recent years, due to the launch of the Kongor-Chrome enterprise (Polar Urals), this figure has increased to 650–750 thousand tons per year.

The total copper reserves in the country are about 90–100 million tons. The largest deposit is the currently undeveloped Udokanskoye (Eastern Siberia), which contains about 20 million tons of copper. Other large deposits include Oktyabrskoye, Talnakhskoye (Eastern Siberia), Gaiskoye (Orenburg region).

The total gold reserves in Russia are estimated at 10 thousand tons. The largest deposits with reserves of 1500 tons are Natalkinskoye and Sukhoi Log. Gold production is 180–190 tons per year.

The structure of gold mining is dominated by the Far Eastern District, which accounts for 55–58% of all gold mined in the country. The share of Eastern Siberia is 35–38%. Among the enterprises, Polyus Gold CJSC (Krasnoyarsk Territory) stands out, which annually produces 38–40 tons of precious metal.

The volume of iron ore raw materials in Russia is about 56 billion tons. The bulk of the reserves are in the Central region (about 60%), where the famous Kursk magnetic anomaly is located. Quite significant reserves of iron ore are available in the Urals and Siberia. The main volume of production also falls on the Central region - over 50%. There are 4 iron ore enterprises operating here. The largest are Lebedinsky and Mikhailovsky GOKs.

Iron ore enterprises in Russia export over 20% of their output. The main volume is directed to the domestic market for the production of metallized raw materials and cast iron. By 2017, the production of marketable iron ore is projected to increase to 120–125 million tons per year - due to the launch of the Prioskolsky Mining and Processing Plant in Central Russia and the Kimkano-Sutarsky GOK in the Far East.

Russia's natural potential allows it to become the largest producer of all known minerals. Foreign experts see an obstacle to this in the fact that the state (unlike other mining countries) left companies in the industry alone with their problems, without any support. And this policy is unlikely to change in the near future.

Brazil

The mining industry is a very important component of the Brazilian economy. This industry accounts for up to 50% of the country's foreign trade balance. 83% of the production value of the entire industry comes from iron ore, the rest from copper and nickel. The Brazilian corporation Vale owns 75% of the country's mining market. Thanks to this, one of the world's largest mining companies, Brazil has transformed from an investment destination to an active subject of capital investments, including abroad. With approximately $10 billion in available cash, Vale is a global buyer of assets from other international mining companies.

The country has explored deposits of such important minerals as bauxite (2800 million tons), kaolin (1700 million tons), iron ore (19000 million tons), niobium (4.5 million tons) and nickel (6 million tons). In addition, Brazil occupies a leading position in the world in the production of gold, coal and phosphates. The mining industry accounts for approximately 3% of the country's GDP. Brazil ranks fifth in the world in copper production. In addition, Brazil is the world's largest supplier of niobium, tin, lithium, tantalum and precious stones.

India

The country remains closed to foreigners in relation to the mining industry. Of the total foreign investment coming into India, this industry accounts for less than 1%. The country actively mines iron ore (4th place in the world), which is exported mainly to China. In addition, limestone, bauxite, manganese and mica are mined here. However, the dominant position (70%) in the Indian mining industry is occupied by coal mining (3rd place in the world). At the same time, coal prices are regulated not by the market, but by a special government agency, Coal India.

In the last 20 years, the average annual growth rate of the Indian mining industry has been 4-5%. In 2006–2011 it increased to 10% per year. In 2010, the volume of products produced by the industry reached 1 billion tons, and its value was $10.7 billion. Currently, 1.1 million people are employed in the mining industry. There are 2,326 private and 292 public mines in the country. The minerals and metals they produce account for 16% of India's total exports. For a long time, the extractive sector of the economy was completely state-owned. In recent years, it has gradually opened up to the private sector. However, the public sector still accounts for 100% of the production of copper, diamonds, lead, silver, and zinc; approximately 98% of coal production, 60% of iron ore and 50% of magnesite, bauxite, chromium and dolomite.

About 20 thousand mineral deposits are registered in India. The country's geological potential is very significant.

China

The country's mining industry has in recent years transformed from an investment destination to an active player and investor in the global market. In the mid-1990s, when China was in dire need of investment, management technology and mining technology, foreign companies were invited to form joint ventures with Chinese, mainly state-owned, companies. At the peak of the program, there were 120 foreign mining companies operating in the country.

Subsequently, the government began to pursue a policy of ousting foreign capital from the mining industry. Today there are only 10 foreign companies left in it. China has emerged as an ambitious investor in the global mining industry. In the wake of the construction boom that swept the country, there was an urgent need for minerals, primarily mineral raw materials, and Beijing began to make vigorous attempts to buy assets abroad. State-owned corporations such as China MinMetals and China Investment Corporation have particularly distinguished themselves in this regard.

Typically, these agencies acquire a 40-60% stake in a foreign mining company. Of primary interest to the Chinese are companies that mine iron ore, which is necessary for the rapidly developing ferrous metallurgy industry in the country. Because China has strict restrictions on the purchase of assets by foreign companies, the country is primarily viewed by Western businesses as a potential buyer and investor.

Here the mining industry produces a wide range of goods: copper, lead, molybdenum, phosphates, uranium ores, bauxite, gold, iron ores, nickel, silver, zinc, etc. The largest producer of minerals (excluding oil and gas) is the state of California, which accounts for more than 9% ($3.4 billion) of the country’s total raw material production. The United States ranks third in the world in copper mining and second in gold mining. The industry and related industries employ more than 3 million people, working in 1,879 coal mines, 8 uranium mines and another 1,965 mines, where 74 types of different minerals and materials are mined. The total value of the mining country's products is about $500 billion, and its export volume is $26 billion.

The future development of this industry in the United States depends on many factors, among which experts note the availability of a qualified workforce, environmental restrictions and the safety of mines, especially coal mines.

Evaluating prospects development of the global mining industry, it should be noted that leading companies in the industry believe in the opportunities of emerging markets, especially in the continued growth of the Chinese economy. They are convinced of this by the experience of the previous 30 years, when all the indicators set by China were achieved and the five-year plans were fulfilled. They consider the planned growth rate of 7% to be minimal.

Increasing supply volumes annually at this rate is both a challenge and an opportunity for the industry. At the same time, there is growing demand for mineral resources from other rapidly developing economies such as India, Indonesia and Brazil. Other positive factors include the recovery of the US economy, which remains one of the main consumers of mineral resources, and the demand generated by work in parts of Japan.

Although confidence in the future of the global economy has strengthened, risks still remain. The belief that long-term demand for raw materials will be strong is widespread, so executives are eager to plan their companies to take advantage of this. It is believed that at present it is better to build facilities ourselves than to acquire existing assets. At the same time, as the simplest and effective way Development companies are considering expanding capacity rather than building new ones.

While many executives lament the industry's lack of new greenfield projects, they are wary of large outlays. early stage geological exploration. Instead, they prefer to take advantage of the performance of smaller companies in the sector, which have always been able to perform these jobs more efficiently. This approach could prove dangerous and lead to serious shortages of mineral reserves over the years if small and medium-sized companies lose the support they currently receive from the government.

Building new facilities and increasing the capacity of existing mining enterprises remains difficult. Increasing production costs, a long period of preparation for the development of deposits and a shortage of qualified labor are factors that constantly complicate the situation for all industry participants. More and more cities (like Perth in Western Australia) with unresolved structural problems are emerging in the wake of the resource boom.

Business leaders are constantly faced with the challenge of effectively managing their existing workforce and ensuring that they have the necessary skills to successfully implement future projects around the world, especially in emerging markets.

In a limited supply environment, the mining company is in control and the consumer is forced to take what they can get. Many people don't like this situation. This is especially true for consumers of resources such as iron ore and coal, as they recognize that their sector is much more fragmented than the mining industry as a whole, and they cannot pass on the costs of rising commodity prices to their customers.

Such consumers are increasingly acquiring fields with undeveloped reserves of the second and third categories. There is a struggle for resources, India and China are actively involved in this struggle. Mining company executives hope these developments will spur an increase in supply. However, with returns from new mining assets lower than current returns from existing mines, this could ultimately lead to higher long-term commodity prices.

Notes:

Mine 2011. The game has changed. Review of global trends in mining industry. PWC 2011.

G.G. Lomonosov. Mining industry in Russia: current state and problems. Business glory of Russia.

Outlook: Prospects for Recovery in the global Mining Industry. KPMG, 2010.

India’s mining sector to see robust growth over the next five years. Energy Business Review, 29 November 2011.

Overview of Mineral Sector. Analysis of Indian Mining Industry. 2011.

Outlook: Prospects for Recovery in the global Mining Industry. KPMG, 2010.

US Geological Survey.

The mining industry is a complex of industries involved in the exploration of mineral deposits, their extraction from the bowels of the earth and primary processing and enrichment. The mining industry is divided into the following main groups:

• 1) fuel production (oil production of natural gas, coal, shale, peat);
• 2) ore mining (iron ore, manganese ore, mining of non-ferrous, precious and rare metal ores, radioactive elements);
• 3) industry of non-metallic minerals and local building materials (mining of marble, granite, asbestos, chalk, dolomite, quartzite, kaolin, clay, gypsum, marl, feldspar, limestone);
• 4) mining and chemical (mining of apatite, potassium salts, nepheline, saltpeter, sulfur pyrites, boron ores, phosphate raw materials);
• 5) hydromineral (mineral groundwater, water for water supply and other purposes).

Mining has existed since ancient times. The mining industry developed rapidly from the late 18th to early 19th centuries. In 1967, approx. 7 billion tons of minerals, the total value of which was estimated at approximately $80 billion. Of the total cost of extracted mineral raw materials and fuel, over 70% were fuel and energy raw materials (including 48.8% for oil and 17.5% for coal ), 7% for iron ores.

The mining industry provides the extraction of mineral fuels, ores of ferrous, non-ferrous, rare and precious metals, as well as non-metallic raw materials. The range of this industry includes dozens of types of fuel and raw materials. But it is based on the extraction of fuels such as oil, natural gas and coal (see Appendix 13,14,15); such types of ore raw materials as iron, manganese, copper, polymetallic, aluminum ores; such types of nonmetallic raw materials as table salts, potassium salts, and phosphorites. In terms of production volume, coal, oil, and iron ore are especially distinguished, the world production of each of which has reached 1 billion tons. Bauxite and phosphorites are mined over 100 million tons, manganese ores - more than 20 million tons, and other types of ore raw materials are significantly less. For example, global gold production has been maintained at 2.3 thousand tons in recent years.

The role of the mineral resources sector in the global economy is extremely large. First of all, this is the primary base for the production of industrial products, therefore the dynamics of reserves and the geography of extraction of mineral raw materials are determined primarily by the scale of needs. In turn, the level and rate of consumption of raw materials follows the general course of economic development and scientific and technical progress and, thus, is ultimately determined by macroeconomic factors. This connection is mutual.

Changes in the production and consumption of raw materials, in international trade, in the price ratio for certain types of them affect not only social and economic conditions within national borders, but are of a global nature, having a strong impact on the entire resource situation in the world.

The share of extractive industries in the world's gross output is about 7%, of which 15% in the GDP of developing countries, 4% in developed capitalist countries and approximately 10% in other countries.

The share of raw materials in world trade is even higher, since a significant part of it is produced in developing countries, while consumption is concentrated mainly in developed countries. If the share of developing countries in the total industrial production of the capitalist world only slightly exceeds 12%, then for the mining industries this figure is almost 50%.

Since the mid-1970s. The mineral resources economy of capitalist countries has undergone strong changes, which have led to a qualitatively new resource situation in the world. In the initial period, the raw materials economy of developed capitalist countries is characterized by:

• extremely high growth rates of mineral raw materials;
• huge dependence on imports of many types of minerals

raw materials from developing countries.

The situation was aggravated by the widespread nationalization of mining enterprises previously owned by foreign monopolies in a number of developing countries, with a subsequent increase in prices for raw materials.

The real prospect of increasing dependence on imports of raw materials from developing countries, with corresponding consequences, forced developed capitalist countries to take a number of measures to weaken this dependence, which was facilitated by the successes of scientific and technological revolution.

The efforts of developed countries were aimed at implementing the following programs:

• 1. Activation of geological exploration work on the territory of the developed capitalist countries themselves, where an audit of their own resources was carried out. According to the UN, by the end of the 1970s. 4/5 of the geological exploration work carried out in the capitalist world was concentrated in developed countries, mainly in Canada and Australia. In addition to identifying new ones, a detailed examination of already known deposits is carried out. Here work is being carried out in several directions:
  • post-development - the use of lower-grade ores with low metal content in old poor or depleted deposits (especially in Western Europe), the development of which has become economically profitable thanks to scientific and technological progress; So, new technology mining made it possible to increase the extraction of valuable components and the complexity of the use of raw materials;
  • additional exploration - in-depth examination of previously known deposits, primarily in Canada, Australia, South Africa and Western Europe;
  • development of deposits in uninhabited, remote and inaccessible areas, previously little developed (for example, northern Scandinavia, Alaska and Greenland), as well as resources of the continental shelf of the World Ocean.
• 2. Program for saving mineral raw materials, reducing their consumption through the introduction of new resource-saving technologies, increasing the use of secondary raw materials and artificial substitutes natural materials, reducing the material intensity of products, which overall led to a reduction in the specific consumption of raw materials per unit of production.
• 3. Program for ensuring guaranteed sources of raw materials by establishing long-term contacts with countries exporting raw materials; expanding the number of countries supplying raw materials, and creating, with the capital of developed capitalist countries, mining enterprises in developing countries, focused only on the markets of developed countries.

The results of these measures were so significant that they led to fundamental changes in the entire mineral resource economy of capitalist countries, both in terms of increasing reserves and in the field of extraction, processing and consumption of raw materials.

Firstly, estimates of the world economy's supply of mineral resources were significantly changed. Concerns about the depletion of the main types of mineral raw materials at the present stage and in the foreseeable future, the so-called raw material “hunger,” turned out to be unfounded.

Despite intensive mining over the past 20-25 years, mineral reserves not only have not decreased, but have increased significantly. They can increase in the process of development of science, technology and technology for extracting useful components, by taking into account the reserves of new deposits, the development of which until a certain time was unprofitable from an economic point of view. Large reserves of iron, manganese, copper, cobalt, nickel and other minerals are hidden in iron-manganese nodules at the bottom of the World Ocean (see Appendix 16). One should also take into account the accumulation of metals in the national economy - the so-called metal fund, the possibility of reusing it, as well as new possibilities for replacing metals with other materials.

It is also necessary to keep in mind the insufficient exploration of the territory of developing countries, the practice of hiding reserves by private firms and foreign companies conducting exploration.

The transfer of geological exploration work to the territory of developing countries by developed countries due to their desire for “resource independence” has contributed in the last decade to higher growth rates of individual ore reserves in developed countries than the average for the capitalist world.

The ratio between developed and developing countries in the production of certain types of mineral raw materials is somewhat different than in reserves. For example, the share of developed capitalist countries in the production of molybdenum or nickel is almost 1.5 times, cobalt is 2 times, bauxite is more than 4 times higher than in the total reserves of these ores in developing countries.

Developing countries produce the bulk of tin, copper, antimony, and cobalt, and the production of iron ore, bauxite, manganese, tungsten, and diamonds is almost equally distributed between both groups of countries.

Developed capitalist countries dominate the world production of precious metal ores such as gold, niobium, tantalum, vanadium, titanium, platinum group metals and molybdenum, as well as the production of lead, zinc, chromite and mercury.

In the process of building up their own mining industry in developed capitalist countries, the role of Australia, Canada and South Africa has increased as the main “resource powers” ​​of the capitalist world, in which a powerful mining industry has been created in the last twenty years.

Canada, Australia and South Africa are characterized by faster rates of extraction of raw materials compared to the rate of growth of their reserves, while for capitalist countries in general an equal ratio is observed.

Canada occupies a leading place among the “resource powers” ​​of the capitalist world. It received this position not only thanks to the wealth of various minerals themselves, but two points also played a special role: firstly, Canada has significant oil reserves, while South Africa has practically no oil at all, and Australia is forced to meet about 30% of its needs for liquid fuel to be covered by imports.

Secondly, great importance Canada has close proximity to major industrial centers such as Western Europe and especially the USA (large consumers of raw materials). Fast development Canadian industry is predetermined by the geographic proximity of the United States. By investing its capital in the development of mineral extraction in Canada, the United States considered its wealth as part of its own mineral resource base, satisfying the needs of the American economy. And now Canada continues to be the main source of resources for the United States.

Overall, Canada is the world's leading exporter of zinc, uranium, nickel, copper, platinum group metals, titanium, molybdenum, silver and some non-metallic raw materials such as asbestos and potassium salts. By value, about 60% of Canadian exports go to the United States, about 25% to Western Europe, 10% to Japan.

The intensive development of the Australian mining industry began later than in Canada. The flow of American investment has allowed Australia to take a leading position in the world market as a producer of bauxite, iron ore, manganese, diamonds and titanium ores. Previously, it was already a major supplier of uranium, lead and zinc. Australian coal production for export has increased sharply. Australia also produces copper, nickel, tungsten, tin, gold, as well as oil and gas.

The main markets for Australian mineral raw materials are Japan, the USA and, to a lesser extent, Western Europe.

South Africa occupies a unique position in global mineral production. The country has the richest reserves of chromium, manganese and vanadium in the capitalist world, as well as large reserves of coal, asbestos, uranium, copper, nickel, platinum, diamonds, gold, antimony and other minerals.

The wealth of mineral resources and the availability of extremely cheap labor predetermined the dominant development of the mineral sector in the South African economy and in its exports. This is the only country among developed countries where the share of the cost of extracted raw materials in GDP reaches 20% (3.8% on average for developed capitalist countries and 15.1% for developing countries). But compared to Canada and Australia, South Africa has significant advantages in the global raw materials market. The core of the South African mining industry has always been the extraction of gold, platinum and diamonds, i.e. those types of minerals that almost never experienced high market fluctuations and were almost always in high demand.

In addition, South Africa has practically monopolized gold production in the capitalist world and its role in the world is not inferior to the OPEC countries in global oil production. Therefore, South Africa’s commodity policy could potentially have an impact on the capitalist economy that is quite comparable to the influence of the oil policy of the OPEC countries.

The main consumers of South African mineral products are Western Europe and the USA.

In recent years, the dependence of developed capitalist countries on the import of mineral raw materials from developing countries has decreased significantly. The share of developing countries in the supply of mineral raw materials to industrialized countries is currently supposedly only 34-38%.

The global resource situation is currently largely determined by the relationship between the main consumers of raw materials - the USA, Western Europe and Japan, on the one hand; its major producers - Canada, Australia and South Africa, on the other.

If Australia, Canada and South Africa and a number of developing countries are the main producers and exporters of mineral raw materials, then the countries of Western Europe are its largest consumers and importers. For many types of raw materials, the second group can include the United States, which, although it has a powerful raw material base, at the same time imports many types of raw materials and some “finished” metals.

The dependence of Western Europe, Japan and the United States on external sources of mineral raw materials covers a wide range of materials necessary for the functioning of modern industrial economies. They import almost all cobalt, more than 90% of chromium, tin, manganese and other metals. Fuel imports are huge, especially to Western Europe and Japan, and not only oil and natural gas, but also coal. In addition, these countries take almost all of the world's exports of iron ore and bauxite.

At the same time, despite the significant volumes of imports, the mining industry of consumer countries still has a large scale. This applies not only to the USA - the first producer (by value) of mining raw materials in the capitalist world (including fuel), which currently concentrates up to a third of the world's mining products, but also to Germany and the UK, which are among the world's leading producers.

This is due not only to the large absolute scale of production of the main types of mining products, but also to the concentration in developed countries of most of the production of non-metallic raw materials, the so-called minor minerals, which are little mined in developing countries. For example, limestone production in developed countries reaches approximately 1 billion tons per year, table salt - over 200 million tons. In the USA alone, clay production is estimated at more than $1 billion per year. Developed capitalist countries are also the world's main exporters of non-metallic raw materials. Thus, the USA is the world's first exporter of natural sulfur, borates, iodine, the second is phosphate rock, and Great Britain is still the world's only exporter of strontium and a major supplier of kaolin. Little Greece is the world's largest producer and exporter of magnesite. In general, Western European countries are significant exporters of potassium salts, kaolin, talc, granite and other building stones, diatomite and clays, and the main supplier of magnesite and mercury in the capitalist world. The distribution of mineral resources is very concentrated in individual countries. Thus, according to our assessment, over 90% of the reserves of the capitalist world of chromites, manganese, platinum, nickel, and titanium are concentrated in the three leading capitalist countries; about 70% molybdenum, bauxite, tungsten, tantalum, asbestos; from 50 to 60% iron, lead, zinc and tin ores.

The extraction of certain types of mineral raw materials is also concentrated in a few countries. In almost all cases, the range of states that have a significant raw material base and act as the main producers of raw materials rarely exceeds three to five countries. This situation quite naturally coincides with the considered geographical structure of the mineral resource base and the mining industry that has developed on its basis. Countries that are not included in any of the groups, despite their large number, as a rule, occupy a secondary position in all indicators, both in reserves and production, and in metallurgical processing and metal consumption.

Moreover, the uneven distribution of mineral resources, due to the geographical conditions of their formation, is aggravated by the confinement of the main reserves and production to unique and large ore areas, basins, and deposits. Thus, the modern geographical structure of the raw material base of the mining industry in each industry is characterized by the concentration of most of the reserves and production in several main areas of the world that have common features:

• most of the deposits, and sometimes areas in general, for many metals (iron, manganese, chromium, bauxite, partly copper and tungsten) were explored and developed in the post-war period;
• the predominance of deposits of a certain geological and industrial type;
• the presence in the depths of 20% or more of the world's reserves of both general and industrial categories and the corresponding percentage of production;
• the development in almost all such mining areas of mechanized large-scale mining and production of marketable ore and concentrates, and in historically established traditional areas a high percentage of metal production of the mined ore;
• an important role in world trade for large developed capitalist countries is to provide most of the domestic needs; for developing countries, the main or one of the main sources is foreign exchange earnings.

In many mining areas, significant reserves have been explored that allow for increased production, or at least there are potential resources to expand the mineral resource base.

A similar situation is observed for the mineral resource base of other metals. Thus, the predominant part of the world's uranium reserves and production is concentrated in four regions: the Colorado Plateau in the USA, Blind River in Canada, the Witwatersrand in South Africa, and Northeast Australia.

The main areas for both reserves and production of vanadium are the Bushveld (South Africa) and Western Australia, nickel - southeast Canada and New Caledonia, cobalt - the copper belt of Zaire and Zambia, molybdenum - Colorado in the USA. The situation is somewhat different with lead and zinc. Although large polymetallic deposits in the United States, Canada and Australia account for a significant portion of reserves and production, they tend to be of regional importance, making it difficult to identify three to five areas that play a decisive role.

In addition to the main areas, each industry has other mining areas, sometimes quite large-scale, often with significant potential for further development. In many industries, large deposits have been explored, development projects for which for modern economic purposes are still frozen.

For metals such as tin and tungsten, deposits of new, previously undeveloped types with significant reserves are known, which can become objects of development if there is insufficient raw material. These same metals, as well as lead and zinc, are characterized by the presence of numerous known medium and small deposits, developed in a semi-artisanal, diligent manner during periods of increased demand for these metals. In many developing countries, medium-sized deposits of high-quality ores are known, which can be used to meet their own needs, for example, in iron and other metals.

The most important complex mining regions of the capitalist world are:

• 1. Mountain West of the USA - giant coal mines, a large group of large deposits, powerful extraction of mining chemical raw materials;
• 2. Gulf Coast (also USA) - from Texas to Florida, giant production of oil, natural gas, sulfur and phosphorites;
• 3. The enormous mining belt of Northern and Western Australia, producing iron, bauxite, manganese and diamonds;
• 4. The central mountainous region of South Africa with the center of Johannesburg, supplying a whole range of various types of mountain raw materials from gold and platinum to coal;
• 5. Zaire province of Katanga and Zambia, or the so-called copper belt for the extraction of copper, diamonds, uranium, germanium, cobalt, zirconium and other rare metals;
• 6. Peruvian-Chilean mountainous region of South America for the extraction of copper, lead-zinc ores, precious and rare earth metals, etc.;
• 7. Southeast Asia - for the extraction of tin and a number of rare alloying metals (antimony, titanium, tungsten, tantalum, etc.)

Against the background of these gigantic regions, all other areas are areas of this industry, even such as the “iron ore quadrangle” of Brazil, Lake. The upper one in the USA or the Rhine-Westphalian region, combining the Ruhr coal and Cologne lignite basins, seems less significant.

It is characteristic that in the countries of the “new development” of the mining industry in South Africa, Australia and Canada, the mining industry is concentrated mainly in separately clearly defined areas, while in the old industrial areas of the countries it is more dispersed.

In general, the geography of the mining industry is more dynamic than that of the manufacturing industry. Its origin and development of the territorial and production structure are influenced by many factors: geological and geographical conditions of occurrence of minerals, the amount of their reserves, quality, accessibility, natural and climatic conditions, etc.

However, socio-economic conditions are of decisive importance for the scale of development, role and geography of the mining industry, namely:

• world market needs for these raw materials and prices for them;
• level of development of technology and mining and processing technology

raw materials, which determines the possibility of involving new species

raw materials and new territories for their use in the economy;

• high capital intensity of the entire mining industry, both mining and processing and transportation of raw materials;
• transport factor, which determines the need to create infrastructure to ensure the delivery of raw materials to the place of consumption;
• the provision of mining enterprises with labor, especially in the developed capitalist countries of Western Europe, where the unskilled labor of foreign workers is used to the maximum extent, which the population neglects, despite unemployment;
• interests of large TNCs, which can become a decisive factor when choosing a field for development;
• finally, the high importance of the “ecological component”. The scale of development of the mining industry in each country also depends on the following factors:
• the level of industrial potential, the sectoral structure of industrial production, first of all, the development of “lower” basic industries, especially energy-intensive, material-intensive, directly affecting industries producing fuel and raw materials;
• the international economic specialization of the country, its place in the international division of labor, which often focuses mineral production on exports, the degree of participation in integration processes;
• strategic and political considerations of a given state, its economic and political relationships with its main partners - consumers of raw materials.

Only the interaction of external and internal factors determines in each specific case the role of the mining industry in the national economy of the country, its share in the global mining industry.

Territorial differences in the scale and dynamics of the mining industry are also associated with the specifics of the mineral itself and its deposit. Depending on the type, for example, ore metal raw materials can be divided into three groups:

• ores of large-scale metals of mass production (tens and hundreds of millions of tons per year) and various applications (iron, aluminum); their reserves amount to many billions of tons, and the percentage of metal in the ore is expressed in double digits; In terms of average metal content, they are adjacent to manganese ores and chromites, the reserves of which are one or two orders of magnitude lower;
• medium-scale metal ores produced in significant quantities (millions of tons per year), with quite diverse applications: copper, zinc, lead; reserves of these ores amount to hundreds of millions of tons with an average metal content in the ore from one to several percent;
• ores of small-scale metals produced in limited quantities (from tens to several hundred thousand tons per year) and with a limited scope of application: tin, molybdenum, tungsten, cobalt, vanadium; ore reserves of these metals amount to millions of tons, and the metal content in the ore is measured, as a rule, in fractions of a percent.

If the level of production depends on the amount of reserves, then the metal content in the ore determines the share of mining and processing costs. For metals of the second and third groups, the share of costs for extraction and enrichment makes up the majority of the costs, and this share for metals of both groups is approximately the same, despite the difference in the metal content in the ore. Obviously, this is explained by the fact that metals of the second group, due to their specificity, require relatively high costs for the extraction and enrichment of ores. For metals of the first group, the share of costs for extraction and enrichment is small.

Ore mining costs also depend on the territorial location of deposits and ore districts. When choosing raw materials for the exploitation of large-scale deposits of iron and manganese ores, chromites, bauxites, often copper, and sometimes zinc and lead, where it is planned to develop the production of export products, preference is given to deposits located in the coastal zone.

At the same time, the development of the raw material base of rare metals and their elements is practically not connected with the economic and geographical location as a result of the limited number of deposits.

Based on the combination of the socio-ecological and economic specifics of the mining area with the specifics of the mineral resource itself and the nature of its distribution, which determine the level and geography of production, as well as the settlement system of the inhabitants of the mining area, the mining industry can be divided into three types of subdistricts.

1. Basin-type mining areas, which are characterized by a concentrated form of resource distribution - an almost dense occurrence of homogeneous (sometimes diverse) minerals over a large territory. Most of all, this form is characteristic of coal-bearing, iron ore, oil and gas basins, united by one geological and historical process, often in a single large tectonic structure.

Within such areas, mining enterprises have a high power and are located in concentrated groups.

The bulk of the enterprises are concentrated in a small area in the area of ​​large deposits.

The concentrated form of concentration of mineral reserves, as a rule, gives rise to a network of urban settlements, among which a number of relatively large cities located within the resource cores stand out.

The resources of this group, as a rule, become the basis for the development of a highly specialized mining complex with service and auxiliary industries, but with a number of negative aspects inherent in such specialization: a sharp disproportion between the employment of men and women, the predominance of an environmentally harmful mining landscape, etc. (for example, old industrial areas based on coal deposits in Belgium, Great Britain, Germany, Northern France, iron ore in French Lorraine and Luxembourg, or iron ore mining areas on the Labrador Peninsula in Canada).

The depletion of such deposits leads to depression, the decline of entire regions and major negative social consequences. Their further fate depends on the results of diversification of economic activities.

2. Areas of focal type of deposit development are typical for the development of deposits of ores of the main types of non-ferrous metals, mining chemical raw materials, alloying metals, as well as deposits of many non-metallic minerals, cement raw materials.

As a rule, these are medium-sized deposits. The capacity of mining enterprises in focal areas varies over a wide range: from 100-500 thousand tons to 1-3 million tons per year.

Some types of building stone, limestone, inert materials, shale, and in some cases rock salt are resources that have sufficient reserves, but a limited scope of application. The location of their production is subject mainly to consumer demand, therefore it is confined to developed consumer areas, creating in them dispersed zones and production points of medium and small capacity, and, less often, large raw material processing units.

On the contrary, non-ferrous metal ores and mining chemical raw materials are of high value and in high demand, but generally have a limited raw material base with most of the reserves concentrated in a small number of deposits. Their production is determined almost entirely by the location of the explored raw material base, but beyond the boundaries of this zone, outside of which large nodes for their extraction and processing have formed.

Based on the focal form of concentration of reserves of non-ferrous metal ores and mining and chemical raw materials, a network of settlements is formed, consisting of one city or settlement and several workers’ settlements located in close proximity to it.

3. Areas of dispersed forms of mineral resource development are typical for the development of deposits of rare precious metal ores and some types of non-metallic raw materials (graphite, talc, asbestos). These deposits are not widespread and are mostly small in size. They are placed either in dots or in small scatterings.

Small reserves also determine small production volumes. On the basis of such deposits, a small number of enterprises are formed, located in isolation from one another, for example, for the extraction of non-metallic ores, chemical raw materials, and less often in geographically dissected groups, such as for the extraction of precious metals and mica.

In this case, a system of settlements is formed, scattered throughout the territory in the form of nests and individual points.

The method of field development and the nature of the extracted resource determine the further development of the production infrastructure in the production area. For example, it is more profitable to transport monocomponent raw materials outside the area of ​​their production.

It is unprofitable to transport heterogeneous raw materials, which predetermines the organization of the process and enrichment at the place of extraction. Such raw materials are non-ferrous metal ores, the content of the useful component of which rarely exceeds 5% (on average 1-3%, and in many cases even less). Therefore, it is natural that processing plants are located in close proximity to the mines. However, enriched ore also contains little metal, so further transportation is also unprofitable, and enterprises for the production of finished products are located near processing plants, with the exception of the production of aluminum, titanium, copper, magnesium, nickel, which tends to be a source of cheap electricity.

The development and geography of the world's mining industry over the past 20-25 years has had a number of features.

Firstly, the areas of mineral reserves and extraction have significantly expanded due to the involvement of new deposits in the exploitation.

Secondly, the concentration of production in the most optimal areas of the world has increased. Modern technical and economic trends in the development of the mining industry make it possible to use more productive equipment and conduct large-scale production.

Thirdly, the uneven development of individual industries and, as a consequence, mining regions has increased. In addition to such objective factors as depletion of reserves and competition between areas with the best technical and economic indicators, instability of prices and demand on the world market for one or another type of mineral resource or social, military and political conflicts that periodically arise in different regions influence. For example, prices for base metals have risen several times, then fallen to previous levels, and in some cases were even lower, causing extremely high fluctuations in production from year to year.

The fall in world prices for certain types of raw materials caused major structural changes in a number of mining industries, in essence, the massive closure of copper mines and the curtailment of capacities in the USA and Canada, a reduction in the production of iron ores and bauxite-aluminum ores.

Fourthly, the geographical structure between the homeland of mining and places of trade has changed, new patterns and relationships between the dynamics of industrial production, demand for raw materials and the state of the world market, raw materials and prices have formed.

The reduction in material and energy intensity of production in developed capitalist countries due to the implementation of a whole range of measures to save fuel and raw materials resulted in a relative, and in some cases, an absolute drop in demand for fuel and raw materials from developed capitalist countries.

Partly, the reduction in the needs of developed capitalist countries for mineral raw materials also occurred as a result of the movement of the stages of smelting, and sometimes refining of some metals to the place of extraction in developing countries as a consequence of the “removal” of resource-intensive and energy-intensive industries, both for environmental reasons and as a result of the transition of the economies of developed countries. countries from industrialization, as well as the desire of developing countries to nationalize resources and limit the dominance of large raw materials TNCs on their territory.

MGRT in the mining industry has led to the formation of six major “mining powers” ​​in the world, which account for more than 2/3 of all raw materials and fuel production. Four of them belong to economically developed Western countries - the USA, Canada, Australia, South Africa, two - to post-socialist and socialist countries - Russia and China. The mining industry has also developed in many other developed and developing countries. But for the most part they specialize in the extraction of one or two types of mineral raw materials: for example, Poland - coal, Chile - copper ore, Malaysia - tin ore.

Thus, the global mining industry primarily deals with the economic perspective of mining industries scattered throughout the world. The mining industry is the basis of all industrial developments around the world. Market statistics show that the global mining industry produced more than 6 billion tons of crude products.

The main countries that dominate the global mining industry are the USA, Canada, Australia, South Africa, Chile, and India.

Control questions

• 1. Which coal basins (in which countries) are the largest in terms of coal production in the world (excluding CIS countries)?
• 2. Which countries are the world leaders in electricity production in absolute volume and per capita?
• 3. Which regions of the world (or countries) are exporters of copper and copper concentrates, and which are importers of these products?
• 4. Which region of the world is the leader:
• 1) for the extraction of iron ore;
• 2) for steel production?
• 5. In what parts of the World Ocean are oil and natural gas produced from the shelf?
• 6. Which regions of the world and countries are the largest exporters of bauxite and alumina, and which importers?
• 7. Which countries in the world export almost all of their iron ore?
• 8. What mining and chemical raw materials are mined in some North African countries?
• 9. Which countries have reserves of mineral sulfur?